
Class_ 
Book_ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 




11 



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LESSONS 



PRACTICAL SCIENCE: 



GENERAL KNOWLEDGE REGAEDING 
THINGS IN DAILY USE. 

PEEPAKED EXPKESSLT POK 

SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 



The Author of The Neptune Outwaed Bound, The Neptune 
Afloat, &c. 

p. O'SHEA, Agent^ 
37 Barclay Street. 



Ty7 



Copyright, P. O'Shea, 1879. 



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TO THE PAST AND PRESENT PUPILS OF THE 

VISITATION ACADEMY, OTTUMWA, IOWA, 

With whom I have passed so many pleasant years, I dedicate this 

Volume, with the earnest desire that they may ever 

advance in the knowledge of true wisdom. 

Their sincere friend, 

THE AUTHOE. 



FREFA^CE. 



The wokk of Education iti a great one, in truth the greatest we 
have to accomplish "wisely and well," since it includes the culture of 
body, mind and heart. 

A great writer has truly said : " How to live, how worthily to dispose 
of that one life, which is all wherewith each of us has to face Eternity, 
is confessedly the gravest problem a sane man can be called to solve." 

This is the work of the Educator in training the youth committed to 
his charge. To assist him, books have so multiplied in the primary as 
well as higher branches, that pouring forth from busy brains and print- 
ing presses as if by magic, they would seem to have exhausted the sub- 
jects of which they treat. And yet, with all this multiplicity, there still 
seemed to be a void — an omission, viz. : works of a more practical natm-e, 
treating of objects in constant use, of which children as well as older 
persons were ignorant. An attempt has been made to supply this defi- 
ciency in the present volume. Its hmits excluded many subjects of which 
we would gladly have treated. The great diiiiculty was to select from so 
many necessary and useful objects, the* comparatively few treated here. 

The continual improvements in the works of man, as well as fresh dis- 
coveries in nature, will always make such an attempt as this more or less 
incomplete. A few hnks only are here given from the great chain of 
knowledge, which like the circle, the ancient symbol of eternity, has 
neither beginning or end. Although mainly intended for the class-room,, 
we trust this work will also find a welcome in the family circle. 



ALPHABETICAL MBEX. 

1. Beverages. . .... . .. -309 

2. Coal. -.--.--....336 

3. Cotton Manufactures. . . . - . . .m 

4. Cutlery. •••••..... 216 

5. General Improvements. ...... i 

6. Glass. - -- ........n 

7. India Rubber. .--....«. 168 

8. Money. .......... 248 

9. Paper, Pajichment &c. -..--.-63 

10. Pottery &c. -. ...... -37 

11. Printing. g2 

12. Plated Ware. •-....... 208 

13. Pins & Needles 236 

14. Silk. - - . -.- . . - .. .152 

15. Sugar. .-.-..-*. -299 

16. Telegraphy. --.--.--- 261 

17. Watches & Clocks. . - - - » . .188 



CONTENTS. 



SECTION I. 
CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

Object of this book. — Works of Nature and Art. — Examples of 
each. — Power of God and man. — Farmers and their machines. — 
The past and present contrasted. — Trial of Skill in France. — Amer- 
ica gains the prize. — How our ancestors worked. — Their ideas of 
fanning. — Rotation of Crops. — Changes in modes of Travelling. — 
Steam. — ^James Watts and the Tea Kettle. — Rates of travelling in the 
past and present. — How cloth was at first Woven and dyed. — Daniel 
Webster. — Magnetic Telegraph. — First Message . . Pages i-io 

SECTION II. 
CHAPTER I. 

GLASS. — ITS EARLY HISTORY. 

Glass among the ancients. — Mummies. — How embalmed. — Nineveh. 
— Discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum. — Progress in the arts by 
the inhabitants of those cities — Gaul. — Why so called. — Glass in Eng- 
land and other coimtries. — Different articles made of it. — Varieties of 
Glass. — Kryolite. — The use made of it 11-15 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER II. 

METHOD OF MAKING GLASS. 

Selection of materials. — How prepared. — Quantity used. — White 
heat. — How purified. — When is it known to be thoroughly cooked. — 
Method of blowing Glass.— The Marver.— The Bullion.— Pontil.— 
Centrifugal and Centripetal force. — Examples of both. — Cooling glass. 
— Annealing ovens. — "Prince Rupert Drt-ps." — Cutting plates of 
Glass. — Instrunients used. — Colored Window Glass . Pages 16-23 

CHAPTER III. 

PLATE-GLASS . 

Use made of it. — Materials required. — Casting tables. — How the 
sheets are made smooth and even. — Time foK annealing. — Polishing 
Glass. — Flint-Glass. — For what purpose used. — Optical instruments. — 
Melting Pots.— A Die.— Cutting Flint-Glass.— Polishing Globes.— M, 
Guinaud. — Improvement in Lenses . . ... 24-r29 

CHAPTER ly. 

GLASS ORNAMENTS. 

How beads are made. — Cutting and Polishing. — Paper Weights. — 
Filigree. — Coloring Glass. — Enamelled Glass. — How made. — Soap 
bubbles. — Fine threads for weaving. — Coating for houses. — Fire proof 
cloth. — Painting Glass. — Ancient Specimens .... 30-34 

SECTION III. 

CHAPTER I. 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

Pottery. 

Ancient inventions, — What they said of it. — Uses to which it was 
applied. — Hieroglyphics. — Varieties of Pottery. — Improvements.— 
Countries where mostly used, and for what purposes.— Burial Urns.— 
Mummy Cases. — Excellence of Colors. — How they are formed.— 
Pottery of Babylon. — Images, etc 3S~40 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER II. 

ETRUSCAN WARE. 

Why SO called. — How it differs from other Pottery, — Terra Cotta. — 
For what used. — Specimens of Etruscan Ware. — Alexander the Great, 
— Porcelain. — Its origin. — China. — Porcelain tower at Nankin. — Why 
so called. — Success of the Chinese in making it. — Their jealousy. — 
Crackle. — Curious cup. — Egg-shell. — Cobalt for coloring. — Progress of 
the Japanese in the art. — Note on Mounds. Peruvian Ware. — Double 
necked bottle. — Ornaments for flasks, etc. — Talhas . Pages 41-49 

CHAPTER III. 

VARIETIES IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

Pottery for Palaces and other buildings. — Majolica Ware. — Value 
of the designs. — By whom made. — Dutch Tiles. — Queen's Ware. — 
Portland Vase.— Pottery in the U. S 50-53 

CHAPTER IV. 

METHOD OF MAKING POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

Divided into ist, 2d, 3d classes. — Translucent and Transparent. — 4th 
class. — Cause of Difference in Classes. — Preparing materials. — Glaz- 
ing. — Shaping Vessels. — Potter's Wheel. — How used. — Moulds. — Or- 
naments. — Baking Ware. — Imperfect vessels. — Refractory and muffle 
colors. — Best Porcelain.— Prices paid for Sevres China. — Porcelain 
Museum 54-62 

SECTION IV. 

CHAPTER I. 

. PAPER. 

- The importance of this invention. — Uses to which applied. — Varie- 
ties. — What was used as a substitute for Paper. — Parchment. — Tombs 
of the ancients. — Vellum. — Method of making Parchment. — How it is 
dried. — Papyrus. — Where found. — How prepared. — Mummy Cases. 

63-68 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER II. 

EARLY HISTORY OF PAPER. 

When paper was introduced into Europe. — By whom. — Bamboo 
paper. — How made. — That of the Japanese strong and beautiful. — 
"When first made from cotton and linen. — Oldest specimen in Spain. — 
French Refugees in England. — Carry the art there. — Quality. — Pro- 
gress of the work. — Germany. — Paper made of other materials. — Im- 
provement in French method. — When brought to the U. S. — Mill at 
Chester Creek. — Made by hand. — Demand exceeds the supply. — How 
the quantity is increased. — How first made. — Amount used in the U. 
S. — Materials now in use. — Which are the best. — How quickly made. 
— Paper produced from cane. — Process. — Smithsonian Institute. — How 
many different materials employed. — Nothing useless in the works of 
Nature Pages 69-77 

CHAPTER III. 

METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 

Preparing materials. — Removing color. — Cleansing. — Changed to 
Pulp. — Dutch engine. — Washer and Beater. — When pulp formed. — 
Time required. — Bleaching. — Chlorine Water. — Sizing. — How the 
pulp is formed into sheets. — Old method of drying. — Length of time. — 
Persons employed. — To what indebted for improvement in process of 
manufacture. — Fourdrinier machine. — Quality of paper produced by it. 
— Proof of strength. — First step in the process.^ — Wire. — Deckles.— 
How Water lines are formed. — Use of these figures. — Couch rolls. — 
Pressing out the moisture. — Drying cylinders. — Writing Paper. — Sized. 
— How rapidly made. — Cutting and Glazing. — Imperfect sheets. 

78-91 

SECTION V. 

CHAPTER I. 



Rank among the Arts. — Ancient ruins. — How modern nations 
gained the idea of Printing. — Advantages of the invention. — Mova- 



CONTENTS. VU 

ble types. — Chinese.— Japanese and Tartars. — Reason for still using 
movable types. — Reserve of the Chinese. — ^Japanese method of print- 
ting from blocks . Pages 92-95 

CHAPTER II. 

MODERN METHOD OF PRINTING. 

To whom are we indebted.— Why it is doubtful. — ^John Guttenberg. 
-^Improvement by Schaffer. — Success of inventors.— Siege of Ment2. 
— Ornaments used. — Progress of the art.-^When introduced into the 
U. S. — Style of first machines. — Ink used. — Defects. — How capitals 
were made. — Describe ornaments — Great improvements in 1750.— 
Punches. — Varieties of type. — Font-rTable of Letters . . 96-IG2 

CHAPTER III. 

PROCESS OF PRINTING EXPLAINED. 

Compositor. — How he works.— Galley. — Marking pages — Folding 
leaves. — First proof. — 15,000 impressions of newspaper in an hour.— 
Steam first used in 1814. — London Times .... 103-106 

CHAPTER IV. 

STEREOTYPE PRINTING. 

How copies of books are renewed. — First method of Stereotyping,^ 
Opposition from type founders. — Seventy years after. — Method of Di- 
dot. — A still better plan. — "Paper process." — Platen. — Stereotype 
plate 107-110 

SECTION VL 
CHAPTER I. 

COTTON MANUFACTURERS. 

Origin of Cotton. — Varieties of the plant.— Sea Island. — Price per 
pound. — Where different kinds are raised.— When it is planted.— 
Ripening. — Picking. — Length of the season. — When gathered. — What 
follows ilt-115 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

PROGRESS OF THE MANUFACTURE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 

Used by Mexicans. — In what way. — Charles the 5th. — Facilities for 
raising Cotton in the U. S. — Method in India — -Cotton and Flax 
thread. — Old method of making thread and cloth. — Carded by hand. — 
"Slivers" — Weaving. — Improvements in 1767. — Spinning Jenny. — 
More improvements Pages 11 6-1 20 

CHAPTER III. 

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 

Mixing bales of Cotton. — Different Staples. — Uses of each. — Wil- 
ley machine. — Spreader. — Carding. — Drawing process. — Bobbins. — 
Royal Robes. — Registering work. — No. of machines . . 121-125 

CHAPTER IV. 

GREATER IMPROVEMENTS. 

First factory. — Samuel Slater. — English Law — F. C. Lowell. — Spin- 
dles used. — First mill where all the operations were carried on. — Oper- 
ations obtained. — Increase in number of mills. — Lowell factories. 

126-130 

CHAPTER V. 

CALICO PRINTING. 

Cleansing and Bleaching. — Chinese method. — Progress of the art in 
Europe. — Difficulties in London. — First printing of Calico. — Improve- 
ments by machines. — Designers. — Schools of Design. — Variety and 
beauty of patterns. — Different tastes. — Calendering cloth. — Singeing. 
— Printing by cylinders. — How the colors are applied. — Mordants. — 
Dyeing after printing 131-138 



CONTENTS. IX 

SECTION VII. 

CHAPTER I. 

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. 

Improved reels for winding. — Fulling. — Dried on Tenter frames.— 
Forming nap. — Teasle Plant. — Coloring. — Improvements. 

Pages 139-142 

CHAPTER II 



When first used. — What was the substitute for carpets. — Different 
kinds. — How the Ingrain is made. — Power Looms. — Mr. Bigelow.— 
Brussels.- — Why so called. — How made. — ^ Wilton Carpets. — Parti-col- 
ored yarns. — Printing yarn . . . . . . . 143-147 

CHAPTER HI. 

SHODDY. 

New invention. — When first made. — Dewsbury. — Warehouse.— As- 
sorting bundles. — Prices. — Mungo. — Using Milk. — Advantage of the 
Shoddy business 148-151 



SECTION VIII. 

CHAPTER I. 

SILK. — EARLY HISTORY. 

When first used. — Chinese. — Progress in Europe. — Where obtained. 
Cocoons. — Spider's Web. — Chrysalis.— Caterpillar sheds its skin.^ 
How they spin the thread. — Three webs. — Time required. — Mistakes 
of Caterpillars. — Unwinding the silk. — How the worms are reared in 
India 152-156 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL PROGRESS. 

Introduced into Europe. — France. — Derby. — John Lombe. — King 
James sends eggs to Virginia. — Little success. — Coronation robe of 
Charles II. — Louisiana.-^Georgia. — How introduced. — Filature. — First 
raw silk in the U. S. — Queen Caroline. — War. — Last lot made. — 
Mrs. Pinckney. — Closed by War.— Trade again revived. — Progress in 
Northern States. — Present state of Silk trade there. — State Prison at 
Auburn, N. Y. — Largest establishment now in U. S. — California. — 
Wonderful success there ...... Pages 157-162 

CHAPTER III. 

METHOD OF MAKING SILK. 

First step m the Process. — Destroying the moth. — Filatures. — Un- 
winding the silk. — Size of the fiber. — Quantity mside by a single 
cocoon. — " Throwing " the silk. — " Organzine " — The Cleaner. — Waste 
silk. — Its use 163-167 

SECTION IX. 

CHAPTER I. 

INDIA RUBBER. 

New invention. — To whom are we indebted. — Where found. — What 
the tree produces. — How obtained. — Used by natives. — Candles. — Its 
color. — Difficulty in using the gum.^Volatile Oils. — Waterproof 
Cloth. — ^'Caoutchoucine'" — Other difficulties. — How removed.— Articles 
made of it. — Marine Glue. — Its qualities. — Another difficulty. — Charles 
Goodyear. — Twenty years' patient labor to accomplish it ! — Vulcanized 
Rubber. — Change in the nature of the gum .... 168-175 

CHAPTER II. 

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. 

Condition of the gum when imported. — How cleansed. — The " Crack- 
er " — Grinding machine. — Curing the rubber. — Noise like pistol shots, 



CONTENTS. XI 

— Different methods for various articles made. — English method. — 
Powerful machine.— Cold water boils by friction alone. — Rubber 
hardened. — Made into thread. — Elasticity restored. — Belting. — Its 
strength increased. — Croton hose. — Steam valves.— Great value of 
Caoutchouc Pages 176-182 

CHAPTER III. 

GUTTA-PERCHA. 

Why so called. — How gathered. — Method of the natives. — Trees 
destroyed. — Who. first made it known to Europeans. — First shipment. 
— Differs from Caoutchouc. — Uses made of it. — Method of preparing 
it. — How the quality is improved. — Life-boats. — Examples. — For sur- 
gery. — Used by dentists 183-187 



SECTION X. 
CHAPTER I. 

CLOCKS AND WATCHES. 

How the ancients measured time. — Sun-dial. — Clepsydra. — How 
used. — Alfred the Great. — First use of Cloclcs. — The Sultan of Egypt. 
— Progress made. — Principle of Clocks and Watches. — The Escape- 
ment Pendulum. — How it works. — What affects it.— Mercury Pendu- 
lum. — Gridiron Pendulum. — ;if 20,000 rewarded by Parliament. — Swiss, 
English and American. — Appearance of first Clocks . . 188-193 

CHAPTER II. 

AMERICAN CLOCKS. 

Commencement of the business. — Clock peddling. — Success of Mr. 
Terry. — Prices. — Wooden Clocks. — Present condition of the business. 
Swiss and Germans. — Ingenious Clocks made by them . 194-197 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. i 

WATCHES, i 

First made at Nuremberg. — " Animated Egg." — " Bull's Eye."— | 

The Swiss rival the English. — Different parts of a Watch. — 800 pieces , 
in an English Watch. — 150 to 200 in an American. — Hair-spring. — 

How made. — Napoleon I. Pages 198-202 

CHAPTER IV. ] 

AMERICAN WATCHES. ' 

How long Watches have been made here. — The Swiss. — Difficul- i 
ties. — Mr. Denison. — His plan. — Success attending it. — Extent of the 

business in 1870. — Elgin Watches : Their excellence. — English and | 

Elgin Watches compared. — How regarded by Europeans. — Where 5 

used. . . . 203-207 ! 



SECTION XI. 
CHAPTER I. 

PLATED WARE. 

Definition. — Amalgamation. — 'Ornamenting Sword-blades. — Electro- 
plating. — Electricity. — Many uses to which it is applied. — Silver 
plating. — Advantage of using this method for plating . . 208-212 

CHAPTER II. 

MANUFACTURE OF PLATED WARE. 

Largest factories in the world in this country. — Articles produced.— 
Gorha^ Co. — How much material used there. — Gold plating. — How 
it is done. — Value of the Gold used 213-215 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

SECTION XII. 

eUTLERY. 

CHAPTER I. 

CUTLERY IN GENERAL. 

Cutlery of the ancients. — ^Bronze. — How used. — Sheffield. — Steel.— 
How made. — Varieties of Steel. — Damascus Blades. — Why so called. 
— Qualities of this Steel. — Experunents made. — M. Bryant and Gen. 
AnossofE.— 'Method of the latter Pages 216-222 

CHAPTER II. 

KNIVES AND FORKS. 

Origin. — Method of making For ks.r— Tempering. — Colors produced 
by degrees of heat — Grinding and polishing. — Unhealthy operation. — 
" Hulls." — Glazing and Lapping. — Materials for handles. — How fas- 
tened.— Pen-knives. — Tempering the blades. . . . 223-228 

CHAPTER III. 

OTHER ARTICLES OF CUTLERY. 

Table-knives. — How made. — Welding. — Razors. — Scissors. — Mate-' 
rials used. — Prices vary from7 cents to .$50.00 . . . 229-231 

CHAPTER vIV. 

CUTLERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Attention paid to this branch of industry.— Success. — Cause of pro- 
gress. — An American apprentice.— Table cutlery first made in the 
United States. — 'Mr. Russell.— Establishment at Greenfield. — Axes. — 
How madcvT— Trip-hammers 232-235 



XIV CONTENTS. 

SECTION XIII. 

PINS AND NEEDLES 

CHAPTER I. 

PINS. 

When first used. — What was substituted. — Materials used. — Method. 
—Old and new process.— One now adopted. — How cleansed and 
polished. — Boiled by steam. — Filling the papers. — How done. — Time 
required. — War of 1812. — Manufactory at Waterbury, Conn. — Im- 
provements made Pages 236-241 

CHAPTER II. 

NEEDLES. 

Early History. — Pliny. — Steel Needles. — Quality of those first made. 
— Establishment at Redditch. — Skill and care required. — Straighten- 
ing the wire. — Pointing the wires. — Grinders' Asthma. — Forming the 
eye. — How great skill of the operatives is shown. — Hardening and 
tempering. — Cleaning the Needles. — Arranging in order. — Drilling the 
eyes. — Pointing the Needles. — Folding in papers . . . 242-247 

SECTION XIV. 

MONEY. 

CHAPTER I. 

COINS, 

Origin of the word. — Variety of money among different nations. — 
Chinese money. — Living and dead money. — The Lydians first coiners. 
— Figures stamped on coin. — Pecunia. — Paper money in America. — 
Mint. — Names of those in the United States.^Assay Office.— Bullion. 



CONTENTS. XV 

— What is done with it. — How Mints are established. — OfScers.-— Part- 
ing process. — Alloy. — Formed into ingots. — Size of an ingot. — Cut- 
ting press. — Testing the weight. — Planchets. — Coining. — Honesty a 
necessity in the Mint.— Collecting the waste metal . Pages 248-255 



CHAPTER II, 

PAPER MONEY. 

How used and valued. — How banks are chartered. — Origin of the 
term Bank. — Three kinds of Banks. — Bank of Discount. — Of Deposit. 
—Of Circulation. — Where Paper Money is made.^ Various steps in the 
process before a bill is complete 256-260 

SECTION XV. 

TELEGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 

Great inventions. — Meaning of Telegraph. — Custom of the ancients 
— The Indians. — Communications between ships at sea. — Objections t« 
these methods. — First idea of Telegraphing by Electricity.— Why no 
made practical at once. — Dr. Franklin. — Leyden Jar — Electrical Batter 
— Voltaic Pile. — How formed. — Different metals used. — Experimen 
with the tongue, etc. — Objection to the Voltaic Pile in Telegraphing.— 
Next improvement. — Difficulty yet to be removed. — Prof. Henry.— 
His method. — Great inventions the result of patient, persevering 
study. — Electricity first applied to Telegraphing. — Method adopted.— 
Establishment of the first Telegraph. — How the signals were given.— 
Prof. Morse.— The first message between Washington and Baltimore. 
— Obtaining the Electricity. — Recording the message. — Old and new 
method 261 269 



XVI CONTENTS. 

OHAPTER II. 

Telegraphic instruments. 

Grove's Battery. — Description of it.— ^How used. — Positive and Nega- 
tive poles.'— Examples of different Electrics. — Effects of Electricity. — 
Metal used for the Telegraph WJres.^^How laid in Europe and Asia. 
— Insulating wires.— ^Method of laying the lines in the United States. — 
Rapidity of the current. — Length of lines in this country. — Additions 
made. — Connecting Continents by wires.— 'Head-quarters of the Tele- 
graph Companies in the United States.— Description of it. — Other, ap- 
plications of the Telegraph.— Fire Alarms. — Noon Signals, — Recent 
improvements in Telegraphing. — ^M. LaCour — meaning of a "current" 
of Electricity . Pages 270-277 

CHAPTER III 

SUB-MARINE TELEGRAPH. 

First idea of a Sub-marine Telegraph.-— Other attempts. — Connect- 
ing the Old World with the New. — Experiment that led to this attempt. 
— Cable similar to a Leyden Jar. — Defect remedied. — First signals by 
Atlantic Cable. — Number of messages sent. — Time required for a 
single message. — Discovering the defect.— Enterprise abandoned. — 
Cost of first Atlantic Cable. — Method of laying Sub-marine Cables. — 
" Chatterston's Composition.*' — Testing the Cable. — " Telegraphic 
Plateau." — Weight of the wire.— Difficulty experienced in the work. — 
Joining the ends of the Cable. — Attending ships. — Second Atlantic 
Cable. — Great Eastern.— Third attempt a success. — French Cable. — 
Quadruplex system. — Telephone system. — Machines run by Elec- 
tricity 278-287 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE TELEPHONE. 
Meaning of the word— Wheie and by whom invented --How made — 
Electro — Mr.gnet — Music^T. A, Edison— Note— Experiments — ^Metal- 
lized Charcoal — Wonders of Telephone. 

CHAPTER y. 

THE PHONOGRAPH. 
How made — Wonderful effects — Other instruments — Horn of Alex- 
ander -^ Describe Megaphone — Tasimeter — Electric Light—Advan- 
tages. 



CONTENTS. XVll 

SECTION XVI. 

SUGAR. 

CHAPTER I. 

SUGAR-CANE. 

How long used. — First appearance in Europe and other countries. — 
How Sugar is obtained. — Revolution in St. Domingo, — Introduced 
into Georgia. — That State the nursery of other plantations. — Principal 
business passed to Texas and Louisiana. — Cause of this change. — 
Amount produced from each State. — Different varieties of the Cane. — 
Mode of culture. — Time and method of gathering. — Sugar Mill. — 
Muscovado. — Mode of purifying. — Loaf Sugar. — Quantity consumed. 
— Candy. — Stuart's Refinery. — Method of manufacture. 

Pages 299-305 

CHAPTER II. 

MAPLE, — SORGHUM.— BEET SUGAR. 

Making Maple Sugar. — States producing most Maple Sugar. — 
Quantity made in i860. — Sorghum. — First made.— Quantity produced 
during the Civil War. — Other articles used in making Sugar. 

306-308 

SECTION XVII. 

TEA. 

CHAPTER I. 

TEA. 

From what obtained. — China and Japan and other countries. — An 
attempt to raise it in the United States. — Why so expensive an article. 



XVlll CONTENTS. 

— How long used.— How regarded at first. — Prices paid in Europe. — 
Present to the King of England. — Adulterating it. — When Tea became 
an article of trade here. — Where mostly used as a beverage. — Differ- 
ent methods of preparing it. — " Brick Tea " of the Tartars. 

Pages 509-314 

CHAPTER II. 

CULTIVATING TEA. 

Where most extensively cultivated. — " Garden " and " Hill " Tea. — 
Kind of soil required. — Method of cultivation. — Times for gathering. — 
Age of the plants. — Method of drying — Difference between Green and 
Black Tea. — Adulterating Tea. — " Lie Tea." — Flavoring Tea. — Mode 
of transportation 315-321 

CHAPTER III. 

COFFEE. 

Early History. — In what countries produced. — How introduced into 
South America. — Plant described. — Mode of cultivation. — Destroying 
forests for a Fazenda. — Time for harvesting. — How gathered. — Why 
Arabian Coffee is superior to any other. — Custom at a Fazenda in South 
America. — Drying the Coffee. — Age improves the Coffee. — Various 
modes of using the plant by different nations. — Where Coffee is mostly 
used. — ^Adulterating it. — Chicory 322-32^ 

CHAPTER IV. 

CHOCOLATE AND COCOA, 

From what obtained. — Greatly esteemed.— How Chocolate is pre- 
pared. — Flavoring and adulterating. — Other uses. — Cocoa tree. — Na- 
ture of the fruit. — How and when gathered. — " Shells." — Cocoanut. — 
How obtained. — Appearance of the tree. — Age before bearing. — 
Where the fruit grows. — Various uses of the tree. — Palm wine. — Ar- 
rack. — How the age of the tree is known .... 330-335 



CONTENTS. XIX 

SECTION XVIII. 

COAL. 

CHAPTER I. 

FORMATION OF COAL. 

How obtained. — Carbon the food of plants, — Oxygen of animals. — 
Different periods for the formation of Coal. — Position and number of 
fossil forests. — Beauty of the vegetation. — When discovered in Eng- 
land. — Objection to its use. — Luminous Gas, etc., made from Coal. — 
Varieties. — Description of each. — Bitumen. — Varieties in one bed. 

Pages 336-341 

CHAPTER II. 

USEFUL SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM COAL. 

Extent of Coal fields. — Countries where it is most abundant. — " Fire- 
damp." — Sir Humphrey Davy. — " Safety-lamp." — How made. — Prin- 
ciple of its safety. — Proved by an experiment. — Effects of the " fire- 
damp." — Different substances obtained from Coal. — Coke. — How 
made. — Its use. — Coal-tar.— ^Naphtha. — Where found. — How used. — 
Benzoin. — Carbolic acid. — Paraffine. — Petroleum. — Oil Wells. — Where 
found.— Burman Empire. — Advantage in using Coal oil . 342-348 

CHAPTER III. 

GAS. 

Meaning of the term. — How obtained. — Artificial and natural Gas.— 
Where found. — The Chinese. — Dr. Clayton, the discoverer of artificial 
Gas. — For some time not practically useful. — Houses illuminated in 
1792. — Other materials used for Gas.^— Rosin Oil. — Wood Gas. — 
Where used. — Cannel Coal preferred for Gas. — Method of making 
Gas. — Time required. — Amount produced. — Estimating value of the 
Gas. — Retorts. — Purifying the Gas. — Testing its quality. — " Station 
Meter." — Gasometer. — How used. — Size. — When first used in the 
United States. — Progress since made. — Conclusions drawn from this 
book. — Summary of American inventions in use throughout the world. 

349-357 



LESSONS IN 

PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



SECTION I. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL IMPROVEMENTS. 

What are we to learn in this book ? 

About many things that we see every day, but of 
which we know very little. 

What are some of them f 

Paper, printing, glass, pottery, porcelain, plated- 
ware, etc. 

As we look around us, how many different works do 
we find ? 

Two : those of Nature and Art. 

How do they differ? 

The works of Nature are made by God, those of 
Art by man. 

Give examples of each. 

Animals, plants, oceans, mountains, etc., are works 
of nature. Railroads, steamers, buildings and their 
furniture, are works of Art. 

Can man make any of the works of God? 

No ; not a single one, even so much as a little gram 
of sand. 



2 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

What Other great difference do we find -between works 
of NattLre and Art ? 

The former are always complete and perfect, while 
the latter are far from being so. 

What does this teach us f 

That Almighty God is very great and powerful, but 
man can do little or nothing. 

How may works of art be divided? 

Into the useful and ornamental. 

Explain the difference between them. 

The useful include such as are necessary for us, 
the ornamental are merely for giving pleasure. 

Will you give examples of both ? 

Glass, paper, machines, etc., are among useful 
things ; music, painting, sculpture^ etc., are ornamen- 
tal. 

Have any improvements ever been made in works of 
art? 

Yes, a great many are made every day, but the 
works of God can never be changed or improved, 
being always perfect from the very beginning. 

Did the people who lived hundreds of years ago have 
as many useful things as we now possess ? 

No, indeed ; they had only a few of the very sim- 
plest. 

Why is this so f 

Because every year new discoveries or inventions 
are made, which gradually lead to others, so that we 
are now supplied with every thing necessary for our 
use, comfort and pleasure. 



GENERAL IMPROVEMENTS. 3 

W/mi are some of the things in which improvements 
have been made ? 

In farming, modes of travelling, manufacturing 
goods and many others. 

Mention some of the changes that have taken place 
in farming. 

Before the invention of machines, farmers did their 
work by hand, or with the aid of a few simple instru- 
ments. 

How is the labor now pe'^ formed ? 

The grain is planted, hoed, mowed, reaped, then 
threshed, winnowed, and even measured and placed in 
bags for the market, all by machines. 

What advantage in this ? 

Much labor is saved, and more work can be done in 
the same time. 

Give some example. 

Threshing grain used to be done by hand with a 
flail, and one man could only thresh out from lo to 
15 bushels per day. 

How can such ivork now be done f 

The largest machines turn out from 600 to 1,200 
bushels in the same time. 

Will you relate an instance showing the power of the 
American Reaping Machijtes ? 

In the summer of 1855 a grand prize was offered in 
France for the best reaping machine that could be ex- 
hibited. 

Who were allowed to contend for the prize f 

Persons from all parts of the world. 



4 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

Did any make the attempt ? 

Yes. At the first trial three machines appeared. 
One from Algiers, another from England and the 
third from America. 

Where is Algiers ? 

It is separated from France by the St. of Gibraltar. 

Where did this trial of skill with the machines take 
place ? 

About 40 miles from Paris. 

How much did each machine reap f 

About an acre ; reaping as well as cutting. 

What was the result of the contest f 

The American finished the work in 22 minutes, the 
English in 66, and the one from Algiers in 72. 

Were any other attempts made ? 

Yes. And in all of them the Americans won the 
prize. 

Is the work as well done by machinery as by hand? 

Yes ; far better. 

Are all machines perfect that are now in use ? 

By no means. Nothing made by man can ever be 
so. This is only true of the works of God. 

What implements did farmers use in the early history 
of this country ? 

A plough, spade, clumsy wooden fork and some- 
times a harrow. 

Were all these well made ? 

No ; very far from it. The plough was entirely of 
wood except a small point of iron at the end fastened 
with straps of rawhide. 



i 



GENERAL IMPROVEMENTS. 5 

How zvas it worked ? 

It was drawn by oxen yoked to the plough by the 
horns, then one strong man pressed it into the ground, 
another held and guided it, while a third drove. 

How are the best ploughs now made ? 
They are made of cast iron and worked by steam. 

Were there many ploughs in this country at that 
time ? 

No, very few. In 1637 oi^^y 37 i^i the colony of 
Mass. Bay, and for 1 2 years after the landing of the 
Pilgrims the farmers about Boston had none at all. 

How did they break up the soil for planting seeds ? 

With rude kinds of hoes or mattocks, and when 
ploughs were introduced, for a long time there were 
so few, it was the custom for those who owned them 
to go round from house to house and do the plough- 
ing for the rest of the farmers. 

Why were not improvements made more rapidly ? 

The early settlers of our country seemed to think it 
necessary to follow the customs of their fathers. 

If a person proposed any thing new, what did the 
people think ? 

They looked upon him as very foolish, or half crazy. 

What were some of their strange ideas ? 

A young farmer thought he must plant as many 
acres of corn and wheat as his father had done, and on 
the same land. 

At what time? 

When the moon was old, that is when it rose very 
late in the evening; then they felt certain of a good crop. 



6 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Upon what does a good crop really depend? 

It depends upon the proper soil and fine weather. 

Did the farmers then cultivate the soil? 

Very little, and rather than take the trouble to 
carry the rich earth from their barn-yards to the 
corn and wheat fields, they preferred to move the 
barn away. 

Did they have a " Rotation of Crops f " 

No ; they knew nothing of it. 

What is meant by a " Rotation of Crops ? " 

Planting different grains in the same field year after 
year. 

Give an exam,ple. 

If wheat is planted this year in a field, corn can be 
sowed the next season on the same land, and the third 
spring, rye, then oats or hemp, and so on through all 
the grains. 

After that, what should be done ? 

Begin again with wheat and go through them as 
before. 

Why is this the best plan ? 

Because each grain takes something from the soil 
that the others do not, which is necessary for its 
growth and nourishment. 

Then if the crops are changed every year in the same 
field, what will happen ? 

There will be a chance for that part of the earth to 
form again in the ground, which was taken this season 
by the corn or wheat, and after a few years the soil 
will be ready for it again. 



GENERAL IMPROVEMENTS. 



As the farmers did not adopt this plan of a Rotation 
of Crops, what was the consequence f 

The land was soon worn out, and of course became 
almost worthless. 



What changes have taken place in modes of travel- 
ing ? 

Steamships and cars are now used instead of sail- 
boats and wagons. 

What is the principal cause of this change ? 

The discovery of the use of steam, and its applica- 
tion to many purposes. 

To whom are we indebted for this great discovery f 

We are indebted to James Watts, a Scotchman. 

When did he live and what do you know of hint ? 

He was born in 1736; died in 18 19. From his boy- 
hood he spent much time in studying out every thing 
curious or wonderful that came in his way. 

How did he find out the power of steam f 

It is said he learned this by noticing that steam 
would raise the lid of his mother's teakettle when- 
ever the water boiled. 

What happened one day f 

He was watchmg the kettle as usual, and as he 
could not hold down the lid with a stick he thought 
lie would tie it with a strong cord and close up the 
spout. 



8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What was the result of his experiment ? 

The steam had no chance to escape, and so burst 
the kettle, causing it to fly into a thousand pieces. 

Is steam used for any thing else except boats and 
cars f 

Yes ; it is applied to many machines for manufac- 
turing goods, heating buildings and for various other 
purposes. 

What advantage is gained by this improvemettt in 
modes of travelling? 

We can go much more quickly and pleasantly from 
place to place than formerly. 

Give some examples. 

Before the use of steam in this way, in 1805, it re- 
quired 90 days, or about three months, for 10 persons 
to travel from Conn, to Ohio, the distance being 600 
miles ; but now 360 passengers can go from Conn, to 
Iowa, which is 1,300 miles, in 3 days. 

Can you give another example ? 

The distance from New York to San Francisco is 
3,756 miles. Formerly travellers were six months in 
making the trip ; now it can be accomplished in seven 
days. 

Have the improvements in manufacturing goods been 
as great as in farming and travelling? 

Certainly, and perhaps even greater. 

Before the invention of so many different machines^ 
how was woollen cloth prepared for use f 

The wool was carded, spun and woven by hand, 
then sent to a mill to be fulled, dyed and dressed. 



GENERAL mi'ROVEMENTS. 9 

W^^H mas the work commeneed in this country ? 

it began as a regular business in 1765, in New York, 
where a society Was formed, the members pledging 
themselves not to wear clothes made in foreign coun- 
tries. 

What liTW Wdts passed to increase the quantity of 
"wool in the United States f 

A law was passed forbidding farmers to kill their 
sheep, or to purchase and even eat any mutton. 

Did they then understand drvssing and dyeing cloth 1 

Very imperfectly. They did not know how to 
" fix " the colors, that is^ to keep them from fading. 

What incident can you relate topro-ve this ? 

When Daniel Webster, the great statesman, was a 
boy, he prepared to go away to school, and for the oc- 
casion, had a new suit of home-spun blue. While on 
the way to school he was overtaken by a sudden 
shower, and all the color washed out of his new- 
clothes. 

What other great invention dm-ing the present cen^ 
t-ury may be added to the others f 

That of the magnetic telegraph. 

When and by whom Was it first brought into use? 

Experiments have been made at various periods in 
foreign countries. But in the United States the 
honor of making it practically useful is due to Prof. 
Morse. He first made known the success of his ex'^ 
periment in i832> 

When ivas the first message sent in this country f 

In 1844, between Washington and Baltimore. Ill 



10 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

1857 there were 22,000 miles of telegraphic line. It 
extended from Halifax to New Orleans, and thence to 
Dubuque, Iowa. This shows how rapid has been the 
spread of the great invention in 1 2 years. 

Is it still progressing ? 

Yes ; and so much, that there is hardly a town or 
village through which the telegraph wire does not 
pass. 



SECTION II. 



CHAPTER I. 

Glass. — Early History. — Materials Used. 

Is the manufacture of Glass a new art ? 

No ; it is very old. 
What proof of this ? 

It must have been known to the ancients, as various 
articles made of glass are found among the ruins of 
their famous cities. 

When and by whom was it first made ? 

This is not known. Many nations claim the honor, 
but there is no certain proof that it belongs to one 
more than another. 

In what country can we trace it to the earliest date f 

In Egypt ; glass beads are found there on the mum- 
mies, which are more than 3000 years old. 

What are mummies ? 

The bodies of the ancient Egyptians that have 
been preserved for thousands of years. 

How was this done ? 

It is not now known. The art of embalming dead 
bodies being lost. They are always found wrapped 
in cloths, in which different spices have been placed. 



12 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Are there any mtimmies now to be seen? 

Yes ; a great many in the tombs of the ancient 
Egyptians. Some have also been brought to this 
country for exhibition and to be placed in museums. 

How do they look ? 

The flesh is dried and wrinkled, so that a young 
girl of 20 would look like an old woman of 90 years- 
Yet the hair, teeth and all parts of the body are per- 
fectly preserved. 

Has glass been found anywhere else ? 

Yes ; in the ruins of Nineveh glass DOttles and 
vases were discovered. 

How long ago was that ? 

At least 4000 years, for Nineveh was founded more 
than 2000 B.C., when it became a great and powerful 
kingdom. 

Does it still remain so ? 

No. It has long since been utterly destroyed, so 
that even the place where it was situated is not cer- 
tainly known. 

Can you mefttiott other cities where glass was also 
'Used f 

At Pompeii and Herculaneum. 

Where are they ? 

These were formerly famous cities at the foot of 
Mt. Vesuvius, in Italy. By an eruption of that vol- 
cano, they were so completely buried under the lava, 
nearly 2000 years ago, that they have only recently 
been discovered. 



GLASS. 13 

How did this happen ? 

Some workmen, who were digging a well, accident" 
ally uncovered a portion of Pompeii. 

What has since been done ? 

Other parts of the city have been laid open. 

What are found there f 

Many curious and beautiful things, all being just as 
they were left by the people at the time of the erup- 
tion. 

What have we learned by the discovery of these cities f 

That the inhabitants were very wise and skilful, 
and knew many things of which we supposed people 
at that time were ignorant. 

What are some of the curious articles found ? 

Many handsome urns, jars and vases, beautiful pic- 
tures, ornaments of gold, silver and precious stones. 

What use did the people then make of glass f 

They used it for windows, dishes and ornamental 
objects, some of which are very beautiful. 

How did they make it ? 

This is not known. 

Was it used in other parts of Europe f 

Yes ; the people of Italy carried the art of making it 
into Gaul. 

Where is Gaulf 

It was the ancient name for France. 

Why was it changed ? 

Because the Franks, a rude nation from Germany, 
went there to settle, and having gained possession of 
tjie country, gave their own name to it. 



14 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

/« what other country was glass made f 

In Bohemia, a division of Germany. 

What was the quality of the glass made there ? 

It was very fine ; indeed the best, and is still highly 
prized. 

What is it called? 

Bohemian glass. 

When was glass introduced into England f 

In 1439, ^^d afterwards into America. 

Has gl^ss been found of much use? 

Glass is very useful. 

Mention some articles made of it. 

It is used for windows, doors, and even houses, for 
table furniture, faces for clocks, watches, etc. 

Are there any others ? 

Yes ; a great many, as spectacles, microscopes, spy- 
glasses, telescopes, etc. 

Is the same kind of glass used for all these things? 

By no means. There is a great variety in the form, 
quality, color, etc. 

Metttion some of these differences. 

Glass may be round or square, flat or curved, thick 
or thin, clear or opaque, colored or hot, very plain or 
highly ornamented with figures raised or painted upon 
it, and of all grades from the poorest quality to the 
very best. 

What is the cause of all these varieties ? 

It is owing to the materials used, as well as 
to the different ways in which the glass is manu- 
factured. 



What names have been given to the various kinds 
of glass ? 

Flint, Plate, Bohemian, Crystal, Enamel, Window, 
Bottle, and Opal j Flint being the best, and that for 
bottles the poorest. 

What materials are used in making the finest kind 
of glass f 

The very best quality of sand, refined potash, chalk, 
and manga.nese. 

Of what is window glass composed? 

It is formed of sand, chalk, soda, broken glass, 
arsenic, and manganese. 

What has been lately used instead of soda ? 

Kryolite> a substance from which soda is readily 
made. 

Where is it found f 

At Ivigtut, in the S. E. part of Greenland. 

Has it been found anywhere else ? 

It has not been discovered at any other place ; but 
it is very abundant there, and over 3000 tons are taken 
every year for making hot cast porcelain, a kind of 
opaque glass. 

For what is this porcelain used? 

It is used for many things which were formerly 
made of glass ; also for tiling floors. 

Why is it preferred to glass ? 

Because it is much cheaper and more beautiful. 

Where are the largest establishments for making this 
porcelain? 

At Philadelphia. 



l6 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER II. 

METHOD OF MAlCING GLASS, 

You said different materials were used for the 'vaH>- 
ous kinds of glass : does each one require a different 
process ? 

No ; generally speaking the process is the same, 
except, of course, when peculiar forms are to be given 
to the articles made. 

What is the first thing done by the workmen f 

They select the materials to be used, carefully 
Weighing them so there shall be the right quantity of 
each. 

What is the next step ? 

These materials are then ground very fine, mixed 
together and sifted, so that the coarse, impure parts 
may not be used. 

Is the whole mixtufe taken at once P 

No ; only about one-eighth, because it is necessary 
to melt it gradually and thoroughly. 



METHOD OF MAKING GLASS. 1/ 

When properly prepared in what is the mixture 
placed? 

In about ten or twelve melting pots, which are 
heated to white heat. 

What do you mean by white heat ? 

When iron or any other metal is heated very much, 
we say it is red hot ; but when this heat is increased 
so as to look white instead of red, we call it white 
heat. 

How loHfg does the mixture remain in the melting- 
pots ? 

Until it has become thoroughly cooked. 

How is this known ? 

The workmen take out a little of it ; if it is per- 
fectly clear when cooled, then it is ready to form 
into glass. 

While the mixture is heating what takes place? 

A scum rises to the top, caused by the impurities 
in the materials used ; this is of course removed until 
none appears. 

Is the heat the same all the time? 

No ; it is constantly increasing until it is made as 
great as possible. 

Will the glass now look perfectly clear? 

No ; there is a kind of gas formed which makes 
those bubbles we sometimes see in common glass if 
it is not removed. 

How is this done ? 

By keeping the mixture at white heat for forty- 
eight hours after it is thoroughly melted. 



1 8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What will happ €71 then f 

The bubbles disappear, and those substances that 
do not melt settle at the bottom. 

Can the mixture now be formed into glass ? 

Not yet ; for it is so hot as to be in a fluid state, 
that is, like water, and therefore must cool enough to 
be worked. 

How great a quantity is usually prepared at once ? 

Enough to keep workmen employed night and day 
for at least four days ; each set of men is changed 
every six hours. 

How is the glass blown? 

The workman uses a pipe or blowing tube four or 
five feet long, a little larger at the mouth end than 
at the other, and takes as much of the mixture as is 
required ; if for window-glass, nine pounds are usually 
taken at once, there being about half a ton of the 
metal in each pot. 

What is the7t done ? 

The workman rolls the lump he has taken and 
allowed to cool, upon a polished cast-iron slab, called 
a marver, at the same time that he blows through the 
tube which causes the lump to swell. It is then 
heated in the furnace and again rolled and enlarged 
still more by blowing. 

What shape does it now have ? 

The part nearest the tube becomes hollow, while 
the rest of the glass works towards the other end, 
where by rolling it forms into a cone. 



METHOD OF MAKING GLASS. ig 

Wkat is this part called ? 

It is called the bullion, and when heated again the 
tube is allowed to rest on a support prepared for it, 
while the glass is blown into a globe. 

Is the globe held still while blownl 

No ; it is made to turn rapidly around all the while, 
which increases the size and gradually flattens it out. 

Where is the glass the thickest f 

At the btillion point. 

Is any use made of this point? 

Yes ; when the workman sees he has blown the 
globe sufficiently, he takes an iron rod called 2,pontil, 
on which there is a little melted glass and applies it 
to the bullion making it fast to the rod. 

What is done at the other end ? 

At the same time the globe is separated from the 
blow-pipe by touching it with a piece of cold iron, 
leaving the globe upon the pontil. 

What is left at the place where it was joined to the 
pipe f 

A round hole ; this is held by the pontil to the 

furnace until it is heated almost to melting, at the 

same time it is made to revolve very rapidly which 

causes the opening to enlarge by centrifugal force. 

What is centrifugal force ? 

That which causes any thing to fly from the centre. 

Can you give an example? 

If you fasten a ball to a string and make it whirl 
round very rapidly, the centrifugal force will make it 



20 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

try to fly away ; but there is another power, called 
centripetal, which is also drawing it to the centre. 

Which is the greater of the two ? 

In this case they are exactly equal, so that the ball 
neither goes to nor from the centre, but in a circle. 

Will you tell me if any thing else is affected in this 
way by these two motions f 

Yes, many things ; but the greatest of all are the 
planets that revolve around the sun. 

What is the centre of their motion ? 

The Sun, which is all the time drawing these planets 
towards itself ; but the other force called centrifugal, is 
also exerting its power, and, being just as great as the 
centripetal, the planets do not go either towards the 
sun or away from it, but in paths called orbits, which 
are more or less like a circle. 

After holding the bullion to the furnace what takes 
place ? 

The opening having greatly increased in size, and 
the globe now being so nearly flat that the two oppo- 
site sides almost meet, the part nearest the fire seems 
to roll inside out. 

How does the globe appear? 

It has become a flat, circular piece of glass. 

What is then done with it ? 

It is removed from the fire, and kept, turning con- 
stantly until cooled. 
Why is this necessary ? 

Because one part would cool sooner than another, 
becoming thick in some places and thin in others, the 



METHOD OF MAKING GLASS. 21 

edges would warp or curl up, making the glass very 
imperfect. 

What next takes place ? 

After cooling sufficiently, the pontil is cracked off 
from the glass, and the circular sheet set on edge in 
the annealing oven with other sheets. 

How long do they remain there ? 

Usually one or two days. 

Are these sheets perfectly cold f 

By no means ; only cool enough to keep the re- 
quired shape. 

What do you mean by annealing? 

Simply placing the heated glass in a hot oven and 
allowing both to cool together. 
Why is this necessary ? 

Because if glass is not perfectly annealed, it will 
break very easily, or when cracked, fall to pieces. 

Explain the reason ? 

When hot glass is exposed to sudden cold, the outer 
part cools first, leaving the inside still partly melted, 
giving it no chance to expand as glass usually does 
when cooling, and which is necessary that the parti- 
cles composing it may have their proper place, and 
the whole mass become tough and elastic. 

Will you give an example of glass suddenly cooled ? 

There is a toy called "Prince Rupert's Drops," 
made by dropping hot glass into cold water. 
What effect is produced? 

Most of the drops will burst — a few are formed 
into pear-shaped figures. If the least break takes 



22 {"RACTICAL SClExNCE. 

place at the stem, they will fly open with a loud 
explosion. 

What is done with the glass plates when take7ifroin 
the annealing kiln ? 

They are removed to the warehouse and assorted ; 
the purest and best sheets placed together ; if any 
have too many defects they are cast aside. 

How are the plates then cut? 

By means of a diamond, into whatever shape is 
required. This is the kind of glass used for windows 
and such purposes. 

How many of these plates are made at once ? 

If half a ton of the mixture is used in each pot, about 
one hundred tables can be made from eight such pots 
in three or four days. 

What are some of the instruments tised in handling 
the glass, while manufactured ? 

Besides the Pontil, already mentioned, there are 
spring-tongs, for taking up bits of melted glass, also 
a heavier pair called Pucellas, with broad, blunt blades, 
used to shape the article as it is rolled, very much as 
potters shape their clay vessels. 

Can you mefttion any other ? 

A pair of shears is also used, by which the work- 
man can clip off the top of a wine-glass or cup which 
is already shaped, while he twirls it around on the rod 
held in his left hand. 

Are the edges perfectly even ? 

No ; but they can be made so, by softening in the 
fire, then smoothing and polishing. A battle-door is 
also used to flatten glass when warm, by beating. 



METHOD OP MAHING GLASS. ilj 

Do you know of any more instruments f 

A slender rod of iron, forked at one end, for taking 
articles not yet cool to the annealing oven to be 
tempered. The Marver is also very necessary. 

W/iat is that ? 

A polished cast-iron slab, on which glass is rolled 
to make it perfectly round. 

How long has colored window glass been used f 

As early as the 8th century we find churches sup- 
plied with it. 

Was it also seen in private houses ? 

Not for a long time ; even as late as the I2th cen- 
tury, private dwellings with glass windows were 
thought magnificent. 



24 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER III. 

PLATE-GLASS. 

Por what is plate-glass mostly used? 

For mirrors, and for windows in large and handsome 
buildings. 

What are used in making it ? 

The same materials as for crown-glass just de- 
scribed, except a greater quantity of soda is used, mak- 
ing the mixture more fluid and giving it a greenish 
or bluish tint. Greater care is also taken to have 
the materials pure, and free from all defects. 

Why is this so necessary ? 

Because in plate-glass, if there were defects, the 
light would be reflected or refracted irregularly, mak- 
ing the image formed on it imperfect. 

Can you give some account of the process for making plate- 
glass ? 

When the mixture is thoroughly melted it is either 
poured into red-hot cisterns or kept in the pots, and 
emptied from them upon casting tables. 



PLATE-GLASS. 2$ 

What are casting tables ? 

They are large metal tables, formerly made of 
bronze, but now of cast iron, because not so liable to 
crack. 

jffbw large are they ? 

They vary in size. Those used at the Thames 
Glass Works in England are 20 ft. long, 1 1 broad and 
7 inches thick. 

How are the tables heated 1 

By covering them with burning coals, which are 
afterwards taken off, and the surface of the metal 
made perfectly clean. 

What is then done ? 

The melted glass which has been allowed to cool a 
little is poured over these tables. 

How is it prevented from running over the edges. 

A ledge of iron passes all around the sides, being 
just the height required for the thickness of the glass. 

What ts done after pouring on the heated mixture? 

A copper cylinder or tube, about 3 ft. thick, rests on 
the edges, and being rolled back and forth, removes all 
the surplus glass. 

Why is this ?iecessary ? 

Because the plate might then be thicker in some 
parts than others, but by this process it is made per- 
fectly even throughout. 

What is done with each plate when finished 1 

It is taken to the annealing oven, and while the 
metal table is still hot, more melted glass is poured 



26 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

on, and other plates are made in the same way until 
all aie complete. 

How long are the plates kept in the oven ? 

About five days : in France less time is required 
for annealing. 

When properly annealed what is the next process ? 

The plates are thoroughly examined so as to see 
how they can be cut to the best advantage in what- 
ever shape is required. 

JIow is the glass polished ? 

Various methods are used. One is to place the 
plates on frames in beds of plaster-of-Paris ; by the 
working of machinery all the roughness is removed, 
and the glass becomes very smooth and bright. 

FLINT-GLASS. 

iro7V does this differ from plate-glass ? 

It differs in being made of much nicer materials. 
Still greater care is also taken to have it perfectly free 
from all impurities. 

J^or what is flint-glass tised? 

It is used for spectacles and optical instruments. 

What are optical instruments 1 

Opera glasses, microscopes, spy-glasses, telescopes, 
etc. 

Why is flint-glass used in them ? 

Because it is the best that is made, and as these in- 
struments are intended for looking at objects that are 



fc 

I 



FLINT-GLASS. 2J 

SO small or so far away that they cannot be seen by 
the naked eye, it is necessary the glass should be 
so clear that all the light may pass through it. 

If these glasses are not well made, how will objects appear ? 

They will not be seen at all, or at least very indis- 
tinctly. 

Are the melting pots used for fiint-glass like those for crown 
and plate glass 1 

Not exactly. They are closed at the top, and have 
an opening through a short neck on the side. 

Why are they made in this way 1 

To prevent the smoke from reaching the mixture, 
as it would discolor the glass. 

Can you mention any other difference 2 

A greater degree of heat is used, so that the mix- 
ture is more quickly melted, and there is less danger 
of the iron from the pot acting upon it, which would 
make the glass worthless. 

How are the articles sliaped ? 

By blowing in moulds kept very hot. 

Is there any other way ? 

Yes ; by means of a die. 

What is a die ? 

It is a piece of metal on which figures have been 
cut; from it impressions can be taken for coins, 
medals, etc., also for many articles made of glaSs. 

How is flint-glass cut ? 

By placing it when soft against disks or wheels of 
iron or copper, supplied with emery ; they are kept 
constantly turning, and, by rubbing against the glass, 



28 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

cut it into whatever shape is required. By the same 
method the surface is polished. 

Is any thing ever used besides emery ? 

If the cutting is not to be of the best kind, sand 
and water are substituted for the emery. Sometimes 
stone wheels are used instead of metal. 

If the first cutting is rough what is done ? 

The marks of it are removed by wooden wheels fed 
with pumice and rotten stone, and finally by applying 
a preparation of tin and lead, called putty powder. 

How are glass globes and lamp shades polished inside ? 

Sand is placed in each globe, and by means of a 
machine they are made to revolve very rapidly. The 
friction of the sand making the glass perfectly 
smooth. 

Were the lenses of fiint-glass used in telescopes at first like 
those We now have 1 

No ; they were very small and had many defects. 

How were the improvements made in them ? 

Many experiments were tried by different persons 
without success. At length M. Guinaud, a Swiss 
clock-maker, accomplished the work. 

How was it done 1 

By stirring the mixture in the melting pots when 
it was hottest, and while gradually cooling. 

How large are lenses now made ? 

Those of Flint glass are 29 inches, and of Crown 
glass 20 inches in diameter. But before this improve- 
ment they were only about 3^ inches. 



FLINT-GLASS. 29 

What use is made of these lenses ? 

They are mostly for telescopes. 

What is a lens ? 

It is a piece of glass, shaped like a bean. The 
word lens coming from the Latin " lentil,'' which 
means a bean. 

Are all lenses of the same form ? 

No ; siDme have both the edges curved in, others 
bulge out ; or one edge will be straight, while the 
other is curved. There are many different forms as 
you will see by the figures below. 



3© PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GLASS ORNAMENTS, ETC. 

How are glass beads made ? 

The mixture is prepared as for window glass, and 
when blown into the globe form, while one workman 
is still holding it, another having on his pontil a piece 
of melted glass, fastens it to the end of the globe di- 
rectly opposite the blow-pipe. 

What is then done ? 

As quickly as possible, the two men separate from 
each other, drawing the melted glass after them in the 
form of a tube, all the time whirling it round so that 
it may not lose its shape. 

How long is the tube ? 

It is lOO or 150 ft. in length. This depends upon 
the size the beads are to be made. If they are very 
small, of course the glass is drawn into a very long 
and fine tube, but if not, it is much shorter and 
larger. 



GLASS ORNAMENTS, ETC. 3 1 

W^f is the next process ? 

The tubes are divided into pieces, about 30 inches 
long. Each is then cut, by means of an anvil, into the 
length required for the beads. 

What prevents the little tubes from closing while they are 
yet hot 2 

As soon as the beads are cut, they are thrown into 
a mixture of sand and wood ashes, to which a little 
water has been added and by means of a machine 
kept in motion ; the holes in the beads are then filled 
up. 

Is any thing else done with them ? 

Yes ; they must be polished. 

/n what manner ? 

As soon as the beads are cold, they are placed in a 
hollow vessel ; sand is then added, which, by the con- 
stant motion of the vessel, rubs against the beads and 
makes them perfectly smooth. The mixture with 
which they were filled is removed, and they are now 
ready for sale. 

How are glass paper weights made ? 

Pieces of colored filigree glass, representing flowers 
birds, etc., are placed within the globes while they are 
still hot, which the workman make to collapse or 
close over the figures by drawing in his breath, which 
takes all the air out. 

Are the flowers^ etc., really as large as they seem to be ? 

No ; they are much smaller ; but the shape of the 
covering magnifies them. 



32 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

How is the filigree formed'^ 

By melting different colored glass rods against 
hot lumps partly shaped into bottles, decanters, etc. A 
little skill on the part of the workman can turn them 
into many beautiful figures. 

How is glass colored'^ 

By adding various ingredients to the mixture. 
All the colors can be formed from oxide of iron — that 
is, oxygen combined with iron. 

Upon what does the brightness of the colors depend^ 

It depends upon the intensity of the heat. The 
greatest degree produces the most brilliant colors. 

Does the color always extend through all the glass ? 

No ; sometimes only the outside is colored. 

How is this done 1 

By dipping the soft clear glass, after it has been 
shaped upon the marver, into a pot of the melted 
colored mixture then blowing it to the shape re- 
quired, or opening it out into panes as we have before 
described. 

If the color should he too deep, how is the defect remedied ? 

By grinding the glass down until it appears lighter. 

Sometimes we see clear colorless figures in blue, green, and 
red cups, dishes, etc. How is this done ? 

By cutting through the outside down to the un- 
colored part beneath. 

What is enamelled glass ? 

It is a very beautiful kind of glass, on which fig- 
ures appear as if cut in the vase or urn itself, or 
laid on very carefully. 



GLASS ORNAMENTS, ETC. - 33 

Explain the process for making it. 

The material of which it is made, is ground to the 
very finest powder, formed into a paste, and then 
laid with a brush upon the glass. 

How are the figures formed 1 

After the enamelling dries, the figures are carved 
out, either by hand or a machine. The articles are 
then placed in a furnace and exposed to very great 
heat, until the enamel has become vitrified. 

What is the meaning of vitrified ? 

Changed into glass. 

What is then done ? 

The sheets of glass, or whatever may have been 
enamelled, are placed in a large kiln to be annealed. 
About a week from the commencement is required to 
complete the work. 

Can glass be formed into any shape when it is cold i 

No ; because it is so very brittle. But while warm 
it can be blown or moulded into any form. 

How thin may it be made ? 

Glass can be blown as thin as soap bubbles, so as 
to float in the air. It may also be drawn into very 
fine threads several hundred feet long. 

Is any use made of this glass thread ? 

It is sometimes woven with silk, forming beautiful 
materials for dress and fancy articles. 

Is glass used for any other purposes than those already 
mentioned 1 

Yes ; within a few years it has been applied to 
3 



34 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

buildings and different things, in the form of a coat* 
ing, thereby rendering them fire-proof. 

How is the solution made ? 

The glass mixture is composed of equal parts of silica 
and caustic potash. This can be dissolved in boiling 
water, and is then ready for use. Cloth dipped in it 
will also become fire-proof. 

JIow are the beautiftd figures made which we see painted 
on glass 1 

Each color is mixed separately with substances 
that will melt more readily than those used for glass ; 
boiled oil is then added, and the colors are laid on as 
in ordinary painting with a brush, or stamped with 
blocks as calico is printed. 

What prevents the figures from fading or being washed 

The glass is heated, when the colors sink in and 
are madej^i"A 

Did the ancients understand how to paint glass ? 

Yes ; they were very skillful, being able to do it 
much better than people now-a-days. Their receipts 
for making the colors are still preserved, but the 
method of using them is unknown. 



SECTION III. 



CHAPTER I. 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

Are Pottery and Porcelain new inventions ? 

No ; the art of making vessels in clay, and baking 
them in the sun or by fire has been known from the 
earliest ages. 

How far back do the ancients trace the beginning of this 
art? 

They say there is no account of its commencement 
in their records, so they conclude it must have been 
the work of their gods who gave it to men. 

What other reason do they give for this belief? 

The fact that different nations, widely separated, 
and having no way of communicating with each 
other, all understood how to make these earthen 
vessels, confirmed them in that opinion. 

Did the ancients make any use of Pottery except for house- 
hold articles ? 

Yes ; they made them into sheets or slabs, on which. 



36 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

were inscribed in hieroglyphics, any remarkable events 
they wished to preserve. The walls of their tombs 
were used for a similar purpose. 

Whai are hieroglyphics ? 

It means word-painting, or picture-writing. Before 
letters and writing were known, the account of any 
event was expressed by certain pictures ; these were 
called hieroglyphics. 

Give an example. 

If the description of a battle was required, the 
whole scene was either drawn or painted. Certain 
objects also represented certain ideas. 

What were some of these objects ? 

The figure of a lion or bear denoted courage ; that 
of a fox, cunning. An eagle, nobility of birth, 
character and strength of body ; a circle, eternity, be- 
cause it has neither beginning or end ; an ostrich 
feather expressed truth ; a lighted lamp denoted life ; 
and so of many other things. 

What nations employed hieroglyphics ? 

All those that had made any progress in civilization. 

Cafi we now jmderstand the meaning of this picture- 
writing ? 

By long study and close examination, very skillful 
persons are able to do so. 

What have we learned thereby ? 

Many important things concerning the early settle- 
ment, manners and customs, wonderful events, etc., of 
the different nations, which we could not have other- 
wise known. 



POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 37 

Was the Pottery of the ancients very beautiful 1 

Yes ; some of it was,although their earlier specimens 
were very plain and common. 

Have any improvements been made in the art ? 

Yes, many ; although the potter's wheel and furnace 
now in use, differ very little from those of the oldest 
nations. 

In what countries do we find earthen-ware most commonly 
used ? 

In Asia, and parts of Africa, especially Egypt, 
where nearly every article seems to be made of it, if 
at all possible. 

Mention some of the purposes for which it is used'? 

For the household ; articles for religious and fune- 
ral ceremonies ; and in cases where we would have 
boxes, baskets, casks, bottles, etc., stone jars, jugs, vases 
and urns are substituted. 

Of what size and shape are they made ? 

They are of all sizes, from seven or eight feet 
high down to hardly an inch, and of every shape to 
suit the purposes for which they were intended. 

What articles were more generally formed by the ancients 
than any other 1 

Water jars, because pumps were unknown to them, 
and all the water was carried in jars from the wells, 
which were often some distance from their house or 
tent. 

Why did not every family have a Weill 

Either because they were too poor, or moved about 



^8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

from place to place so frequently that they would not 
take the trouble to make them. 

How Many of these watef jars would one person carry at 
once ? 

Sometimes threO) one in each hand and a third on 
the head. 

Mow were they made 1 

Some had short, wide necks, others with narrow 
openings and a spout at the side. 

J^or what did they use the earthen Jars in their houses ? 

For wine, oil, milk, honey, drugs, ointments, grains, 
fruits, vegetables, etc. The vessel for each article 
being different from those used for other pur- 
poses. 

ffow was it with those designed for religious rites ? 

They also differed from all the others, and were re- 
garded as so sacred that they could never be taken for 
any thing else. 

In their funeral ceremonies what do we find? 

Vases, jars, and urns unlike any of those we have 
mentioned. 

For what were they intended^ 

To hold the flowers, fruit and other offerings which 
they placed upon the graves, or in the tombs of their 
friends. 

What did they regard the most precious of all? 

The urns in which they kept their ashes. 

Did they not bury the dead as we do ? 

No ; the ancients burned their bodies, then carefully 
gathered the ashes, and placed them in urns or jars. 



POTTERY AtfD POUCELAlM. 39 

Where were these kept ? 

In their tombs or houses. 

Were the bodies of the dead always burned 1 

No ; they were often embalmed, as we have already 
explained. 

Were the mummies placed in earthen cases t 

Yes ; after the body had been wrapped in cloths, 
etc. There were also vases used for holding parts of 
the body removed in embalming. They never allowed 
any portion to be lost, because they believed the soul 
and body would be again united, and if any part was 
Wanting the union would not be perfect. 

Were any other articles used in the burial of their dead? 

Yes J urns and jars different from any of the others 
were placed in the tombs to hold food and such 
things as they might need, for it was believed the de- 
parted wandered about for some time before reaching 
their final resting-place. 

Of what were the Jars, etc, made? 

The usual materials for glazed ware, were soda and 
sand, colored with different metals combined with 
oxygen. 

How has time affected these colors ? 

Although 4000 years have passed away since many 
of the articles were made, yet they are now as bright 
as at first. 

Can you tell how some of the colors are formed for Glass 
and Pottery ? 

Dark blue is obtained by using oxygen and cobalt, 
which is a reddish-gray or grayish-white metal. 



40 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

For sky-blue, oxy,gen and copper. For ruby-red, oxy- 
gen and gold, and so of the other colors. 

Was the gla&ed ware of all nations equally good? 

No ; that of the Egyptians excelled the Assyrians. 
The Babylonian Pottery was similar to the Assyrian. 
The latter made beads and bracelets in great quan- 
tities ; also bricks, tiles, tablets, etc., all of earthen 
ware, on which were inscribed the names of their 
kings and any remarkable events necessary to be re- 
corded. These with other documents formed the 
libraries of the ancient nations. 

What other use was made of baked clay ? 

Images of various kinds were formed of it to repre- 
sent their gods, famous men, etc. The largest of these 
were then covered with brass or bronze. Those 
which they valued or honored the most were coated 
with gold or silver. 

What did they sometimes use for their buildings ? 
• The largest and most magnificent were built of 
bricks covered with these different metals. 



I 



ETRUSCAN WARE. 4I 



CHAPTER II. 

ETRUSCAN WARE. 

W/ty is Etruscan ware so called ? 

Because it was first made in Etruria, one of the 
ancient divisions of Italy. 

How long since it began to be used there ? 

More than 2500 years. 

How does it differ from other Pottery ? 

It is a coarse, brown ware, having raised figures of 
different colors, yet so beautiful as to be classed 
among the works of art. 

Did the Etruscan ware undergo any change ? 

For a long time it remained the same, but when the 
Etrurians began to associate with the Greeks, early in 
the 5th century, B.C. greater variety was seen in it. 
Instead of brown terra-cotta, black, red, yellow, and 
other colors appeared. 

What is terra cotta ? 

The words are from the Italian and mean " Baked 
Clay^ When we speak of terra-cotta, we mean the 



42. PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

earthen ware on which raised or painted figures are 
seen. Vases, fancy cups, and other ornamental objects 
are made of it. 

How has the most ancient Etruscan ware been preserved for 
so long a time ? 

We owe this preservation to the custom of the 
people, which was to bury vases and various articles 
made of it, with their dead in sepulchres and cata- 
combs. 

Was it used for any thing else ? 

Yes. Even the tombs were sometimes made of 
this ware. 

Are any now to be seen ? 

They are occasionally found among ancient ruins. 
Two slabs of Etruscan ware are preserved as curiosi- 
ties in the British Museum. 

TVhat may be seen on these slabs 7 

At the ends and on the side are raised figures. 
The cover is ornamented with the full-length figure 
of an Etruscan female. 

Are there any other specimens in the Museum ? 

Yes ; there is a very beautiful vase, on which is rep- 
resented an Etruscan cottage, with a movable door and 
vaulted roof. 

Eor what was it probably used ? 

It doubtless held the ashes of some distinguished 
person. It was found placed in a larger two-handled 
vase, so that when buried in the earth, it would re- 
main uninjured. 



ETRUSCAN WARE. 43 

Have improvements been constantly made in this kind of 



Not so much as in many other things. The arti- 
cles manufactured after the 3d century, B.C., were not 
so beautiful as before that time. 

What was the cause of this ? 

When Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, had 
conquered many other countries, he obtained so much 
silver, gold and precious stones, that he caused vases, 
urns, etc., to be made or ornamented with them in- 
stead of clay. 

What is Porcelain ? 

The best kind of earthen-ware is called Porcelain. 

Where was it first made ? 

China and Japan are supposed to have been the 
countries where this art originated, having been used 
there at least since a.d. 442. 

What use was made of it ? 

It was employed for domestic purposes, also for 
slabs and tiles to cover buildings. 

What remarkable building in China is or?iamented in this 
way ? 

The famous Pagoda or Temple at Nankin ; it was 
destroyed by fire in 1856. The porcelain manufac- 
tured in this city is of the finest quality ; the business 
being more extensively carried on.here than elsewhere. 

From what is the name Porcelain derived ? 

Some authors tell us it is so called from its resem- 
blance to a shell called Porcellana. Others say that 



44 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

it is formed from the French words "Pour cent annies" 
which means " For a hundred years," — because it was 
formerly beHeved necessary for the materials to rems.in 
under ground for loo years, before they could be 
used, but of course this is not the case. 
" Which of the two theories then can we believe ? 

The first is more probably correct. There is still an- 
other which derives the word ixoxa porcella — meaning 
a " little cup." 

What progress did the people of China make in this art? 

Their success was so great that Marco Polo, who 
travelled through the country in the 13th century, 
relates that he found China-ware so cheap and abun- 
dant, he could purchase eight beautiful cups for a 
groat, which is about four pence in English money, 
making them only a cent a piece in our currency. 

Did the Chinese make known their art to other nations ? 

No ; for they are so exceedingly jealous of foreigners 
that they would not export the best specimens, fear- 
ing the secret of making them might be found out. 

JIow was it at last known ? 

A cunning Frenchman succeeded in learning -the 
art, and was not long in making good use of it. 

When do we first hear of it in Europe ? 

In 1 53 1 ; but it was not until 1712 that the art of 
manufacturing it was known. 

What name is given to the choicest kind of this ware? 

It is called " Crackle." 



ETRUSCAN WARE. 45 

IV/iy is this term used? 

Because the glazing is covered with a net-work of 
cracks, caused by a sudden cooling of the ware at a 
certain part of the baking. 

What is then done with the cups ? 

They are washed in a colored glazing, sometimes 
ruby red, which fills the cracks, giving them a very 
beautiful appearance. 

What other variety of Porcelain can you Mention ? 

There is another more beautiful even than the pre* 
ceding. In this, the color of the cup is only brought 
out when it is filled with a liquid. 

Explain how this is done. 

The design or figure is painted on the inner sur- 
face of a very thin cup. It is then washed over with 
a delicate coating of the paste, so that the figures are 
enclosed between the inner and outer surface. The 
liquid acts as a kind of background, preventing the 
light from passing through, so the figures can be 
seen. 

What is thdn done ? 

The vase or cup is baked as usual, after which the 
latter surface is ground down nearly to the colored 
figures, and then glazed. 

Is this easily done ? 

No ; it is a delicate operation and requires the most 
skillful workmen to do it successfully. 

What other kind of China, can you mention ? 

The variety known as Egg-shell ware. It was so 



46 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

pure and delicate as to be almost transparent, and 
sometimes as thin as bamboo paper. 

What colors were generally used for it ? 

White, cream-color, or an exquisite blue, which was 
obtained from Cobalt. 

Did they make much use of cobalt ? 

Yes ; it was employed so much in coloring, that iti 
the year 1500 the Chinese had exhausted their supply. 

How have they since obtained what they require ? 

From Europe, and the greater part from England. 

What other nations understood the art of making porce- 
lain ? 

The Japanese. It was known by them as early, and 
carried on as successfully, as by the Chinese. The 
natives of South and Central America were also very 
skillful, also the " mound-builders " of the West.* 

* When and by whom those mounds were built has puzzled 
the busy brains of more than one wise man. They are found 
scattered through various parts of the United States. But 
the valley of the Ohio river seems to have been a favorite 
place for their erection. Probably the mild climate, beauti- 
ful scenery, and fertile soil, were as great inducements then as 
now for settlers to make their homes in that part of the country. 
On account of the dry seasons for the past two years, the Ohio 
river has been much lower than was ever known before. In 
consequence of this, a portion of the bed has been exposed to 
view more clearly. This is at Smith's Ferry, where the Penn- 
sylvania line crosses the Ohio. Here a ledge of rock from 50 
to 100 feet wide, and several hundred yards long, is exposed to 
view. It is covered with inscriptions, such as are usually attrib- 
uted to the people that dwelt here before the present race of 
Indians. If this can be interpreted they will doubtless throw 



ETRUSCAN WARE., 47 

How does the ware made by the Peruvians differ from that 
of other nations ? 

The clay was usually red or yellow, and ornamented 
with figures in various colors. 

much light upon the early nations that peopled this country. 
Near Aberdeen, on the Ohio side of the river, are two large earth 
mounds, in the shape of a cone, about 30 feet high and 150 in 
circumference at the base. They are nearly 400 feet apart, and 
covered with large trees, which, according to the usual estimate, 
must be at least 600 years old. These mounds are not yet 
opened, but for various reasons they are supposed to have been 
used as sepulchers. This opinion seems the more reasonable, 
as a mound on the opposite side of the river was opened a few 
years ago and found to contain several skeletons. The same is 
true of some of the small rock mounds near Maysville, Ky. 
The bones taken from them, either crumbled to dust, or broke 
n pieces when removed. It is not known how long bones can 
-emain buried without being entirely decomposed. If this could 
be ascertained, then we might be able to tell the age of the 
rock-moimds. Each grave usually contained two or more 
skeletons, and was about six feet long, four feet wide, and two 
deep. It extended from north to south, instead of east to 
west, as is the custom of the present race of Indians. Ruins of 
ancient fortifications are also found near Mayshck, Ky. ; and 
not far from Germantown, in the same county, may be seen a very 
curious excavation, 10 feet deep and 100 feet square. Flat rock 
covers the floor ; seats appear to have been placed around the 
wall. Many suppose this to have been an Indian Council 
Chamber, although there are no certain proofs of it. Various 
curious utensils of clay and metal have been found here ; they 
differ entirely from those discovered among the ruins in other 
parts of the world. 

We are indebted to the Louisville Journal for much of the 
information contained in the above note. 



48 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What articles were most common among them 1 

Drinking vessels and flasks are more generally 
found, the latter being made with two necks. 

What was the object In having ttbo necks i 

Probably that the air might pass in at one opening 
while the liquid flowed out of the other. 

How were the flasks formed'} 

Many of them were shaped very beautifully, having 
long delicate necks, or ornamented with the head of 
the Jaguar or other animals ; some also had the form 
of birds, and native fruits or flowers. In rare cases, 
the human face is represented. 

How does the pottery of the people of Peru now compare with 
that of their ancestors ? 

It is very inferior, both in form and quality. 

In whut part of South America are the greatest^ quantities 
<f crockery made 2 ■ 

In Brazil: the amount manufactured there is so 
enormous, that sometimes cargoes of boats are seen, 
composed almost entirely of the "tal/ias" or large 
drinking vesselsv 

Of what are the talhas made ? 

They are formed of a light, red, porous clay ; are 
unglazed, and will hold about ten or fifteen gallons 
each. 

What can you say of the pottery of Central America 7 

In the ruins of this country are often found fine 
specimens of earthen-ware, well made, beautifully or- 
namented, and covered with a glazing resembling 
glass. 



ETRUSCAN WARE. 49 

Did the people learn this method of glazing from the Euro- 
peans ? 

No ; it was probably their own invention, as the art 
was not known in Europe for several centuries after 
those earlier nations are supposed to have lived in 
Central America. 

In what other places have remains of earthen-ware been 
found "i 

In Mexico ; the specimens there being even more 
beautiful than those of Europe. In New Mexico, also, 
they are found in the greatest abundance. 

What are frequently seen in the Western Mounds .? 

Beautiful pipe-bowls moulded in clay in the forms of 
animals and birds that are now not found nearer than 
the Gulf of Mexico : others represented the human 
head. The best pipes were carved in stone. 

How do the vases from the Ohio Mounds seem to have 
been hardened 1 

They appear to have been baked over a fire instead 
of burned in a kiln. 

4 



so PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER in. 

VARIETIES IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

What nation introduced the art of making pottery into 
Spain 1 

The Arabs, when they conquered the country in 
the early part of the eighth century ; and also into 
Sicily in the next century. 

To what use was their pottery applied 1 

The walls of buildings were decorated with it ; also 
tiles for pavements were made. In the former they 
excelled particularly. 

Ho7v was the pottery used on the buildings f 

It was made into large slabs, covered with cream- 
colored enamel, highly polished. This was ornamented 
with beautiful designs in gay colors. 

What two famous buildings were adorned i?i this way ? 

The splendid palace of the Spanish kings, called 
" The Alhambra," and the great Mosque at Palermo. 

What iniprovetnent took place ifi the fourteenth century ? 

The celebrated Majolica ware was then made. 



VARIETIES m fOTtER^ AND ^0RCELA1N. §1 

JV/ij was if so called'} 

It is supposed the name was given from the island 
of Majorca, where the Moors had formerly made it. 

How is this ware made ? 

A smooth, white surface is overlaid upon the com« 
mon clay foundation and then baked in the kiln* 

Were any improvements made in -it f 

Yes, a great many ; they are especially due to 
Messrs. Robbins, of Florence, who were so skillful in 
the manufacture of it, that for at least two centuries 
the Majolica ware was the most celebrated in Europe. 

W/zat are its peculiarities ? 

The articles made of it had a very delicate enamel 
on the surface. But its fame was chiefly owing to the 
beautiful designs that appeared-. 

Who 7vere etnployed to paint thenl ? 

The most distinguished artists. In consequence of 
this, the ware became very expensive, and at length 
was bought more for the famous pictures, than for the 
various articles upon Which they were painted. 

What otJw Muropedn nations excelled in the Making o/ 
pottery / 

The Dutch and French. The famous Dutch tiles 
for chimney-pieces, sideboards, etc., are well known. 
In the houses of the v/ealthy these were very beautiful, 
being ornamented with designs by celebrated artists. 

What ivere represented on them ? 

Sometimes a succession of Scripture scenes, great 
events in the history of Germany or other countries, 
etc. 



52 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Whe?t was Porcelain generally used in Europe 1 

After the 1 6th century we find it becoming more 
common, until it was a general article of trade. 

What improvements were made in England 7 

In 1760 Josiah Wedgewood made a beautiful cream- 
colored ware, which, in honor of Queen Charlotte, 
he was allowed to call " Queen's ware." 

What else did he do ? 

He imitated, in porcelain, famous Cameos, precious 
stones carved into figures, etc., so exactly, that it was 
almost impossible to distinguish them from the orig- 
inal. 

What can you say of his imitation of the celebrated Port' 
land Vase? 

He produced fifty copies of this, which were re- 
garded as beautiful as the original. 

What was the Portland Vase ? 

This was a very beautiful Vase found In the tomb 
of Alexander Severus, who died A. D. 235. It is of a 
deep blue color, having beautiful raised figures in 
white enamel. 

How was that done ? 

The art is lost, although, as we have just said, the 
imitation of Mr. Wedgewood almost equalled the 
beauty of the Portland Vase itself. 

What has been do?ie in the United States in the Pottery 
busifiess ? 

But little attention has been given to it compared 
with other things. 



VARIETIES IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 53 

What is the cause of this ? 

It is because we can import the ware so easily and 
at little expense, that it is not thought a very profita- 
ble business. 

Are there any materials in this country for making it? 

Yes ; they can be obtained in abundance. 

Are there any Potteries here ? 

Yes ; in nearly every state several small ones may be 
found, where the common ware for jugs^ jars, etc., is 
made. 

Is Porcelain also manufactured ? 

At Jersey City it was made as early as 1816, and 
afterwards in Philadelphia ; but this establishment 
closed in 1836. 

What variety is produced at Jersey City ? 

The cream-colored porcelain ; it is marked, " C. C." 

In what other cities is it made? 

In New York, Brooklyn, Trenton, Perth Amboy, 
N. J., Ganesville, East Liverpool, Ohio, East Peoria 
Ills., etc. 



54 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

METHOD OF MAKING POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

What articles are included under the name of Pottery ? 

A great variety both in composition, figure and use. 

Mention some of them. 

Bricks and tiles are the coarsest and most common. 
Then, as the materials, etc., improve in quality, there is 
aregular gradation from the red earthen-ware, through 
the varieties of stone-ware up to the various kinds of 
porcelain. 

Into how many classes may Pottery be divided 'i 

Into four. 

What is the first 1 

The 1st class includes Soft Pottery, from which arc 
made bricks, tiles, drain-pipes, chimney-pots, Hessian 
crucibles, and several varieties of common red ware. 

What are found in the 2d class ? 

This class embraces fine earthen-ware, made of 
better materials than the ist class; it is white and 



METHOD OF MAKING POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 55 

hard, covered with a crystal glazing, containing lead 
or borax. 

Mention the varieties of the 3^ class. 

In this division are found Stone-ware, both fine and 
common, the former including the Wedgewood wares. 

How does this class differ from real Porcelain ? 

It differs in not being translucent, or at least, 
slightly so, while this is always a quality of Porcelain. 

What do you mean by translucent ? 

Any thing is translucent when the light passes 
through it imperfectly — that is, not as clearly as in 
glass. 

How do objects appear when viewed through such a me- 
dium 1 

They are indistinctly seen. 

What do you call glass, water, and such substances as permit 
rays of light to pass directly through them ? 

They are called transparent. 

What does the i^th class include ? 

In this class is found the true Porcelain. It is the 
hard translucent variety, composed of powdered quartz, 
feldspar, and very carefully prepared kaolin. After 
baking it is covered with a peculiar glazing. 

What are meant by the terms ''hard" and "■ soft," when 
applied to Pottery and Porcelain ? 

These terms refer to their fusibility — that is, the 
readiness with which they will burn or melt. The 
1st class includes the Soft Pottery, as we have seen. 



56 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

because it is more easily affected by heat. In the last 
class are found hard wares, upon which fire has little or 
no power. 

Is there always a clear distinction between Pottery and 
Porcelain ? 

The difference, we have stated, is not always ob- 
served in speaking of them, as the varieties of each 
are often found so closely blended. It is on this ac- 
count that we have given the history of both together. 

Upon what do the various kinds of ware depend that are 
mentioned in the four preceding classes .? 

They depend upon the many different mixtures of 
clays, pulverized quartz, flints, and feldspar, v/hich are 
minerals. Also upon the coloring matter and glazing 
materials used. 

In making Porcelain and fine earthen-ware, what are used! 

Fine sand, lime, magnesia and alumina — the latter 
being a kind of clay ; also kaolin and bone-ash. 

What is done with these materials ? 

They are all powdered very fine and mixed in differ- 
ent quantities for the various kinds of ware to be made, 
and then kept in the melted state for 48 hours at a 
very high temperature. 

What is then do?ie ? 

The glazing mixture is prepared so that the ware 
may hold liquids. 

Of what is this made ? 

It is composed of different substances ; Some of 
which are fine sand, gypsum, borax, common salt, 
potash, soda, etc. 



METHOD OF MAKING POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 5/ 

How are the various colors produced ? 

They are made from oxides of manganese, cobalt, 
iron, copper, etc. 

If enameling is to be made, what are used ? 

For enamels, oxide of tin, or a preparation of lime. 
You will remember when we speak of an oxide of any 
thing, we simply mean oxygen united with the tin, 
iron or other metal. 

How is the glazing put on the ware ? 

It is made into a paste, which is spread over the 
porcelain, and then heated, but not so much as when 
first baked. 

In shaping the different articles what method is used? 

When the paste is properly prepared and about as 
soft as dough or putty, it is worked over and over, by 
beating, kneading, treading, etc. 

Can it be used at once ? 

That for the real Porcelain requires more working, . 
and should be stored away moist for at least a year. 

Why is this necessary ? 

That the dough may go through a molding process, 
by which it becomes more tender. 

What is then done ? 

The " slapping" process follows. The dough being 
cut by wire into pieces, these are thrown against each 
other so as to be thoroughly mixed. 

How many methods for shaping the articles 1 

There are two. One called " throwing," which is 



$8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

1 

done by the potter's wheel, and the other " casting " 
or " pressing " in molds. 

Is the potter's wheel a recent invention ? 

Not by any means. We have already said the kind 
now used differs but little from that of the ancient 
nations, 2000 B. C. 

JTow is it made ? 

A round flat board or metal rests upon an upright 
axle. This is turned by a belt from another wheel, by 
the hand or foot of the workman applied to a third 
wheel, attached below. 

Ifow is this simple machine used 1 

The potter throws upon the board a lump of clay 
cut the exact size of the article he wishes to make, 
and as it turns by means of the wheel, he shapes it 
with his hand into the form required. 

If the article is too small to hold his hand, what is done ? 

He uses some simple tool, as a wet sponge fastened 
to a bent stick. 

iTow is the outer part shaped 1 

If the article is to be made very exactly, a piece of 
metal of the required form is laid over the clay, while 
the inner part is shaped by the hand or bent stick 

What is sometimes done before completing the vessel ? 
A rough form is first given, and then allowed to 
dry a little before finishing. 

Jf molds are used, of what are they made ? 

Those of gypsum are generally used, as they will 
absorb the moisture from the clay. 



METHOD OF MAKING POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 59 

How are the molds used ? 

Some are single, and shape but one surface ; others 
are double so as to form both the inner and outer 
part at once. Besides this, molds are sometimes in 
different pieces so as to shape the parts of the clay- 
figure separately ; these are then joined and baked 
together. 

JIow is the paste used on the molds 1 

Frequently it is rolled out, as a baker rolls the 
dough, then spread over and pressed down on the 
mold with a wet sponge. This forms the inside of 
the plate. 

Hoxv is the outer part made? 

It is done by putting the plate and mold on a flat 
surface ; then a thin piece of metal of the required 
shape is placed above it. The whole is made to re- 
volve, and soon the article is completely formed. 

How are handles, spouts, etc, fastened to pitchers, tea-pots, 
etc J 

Each one is molded separately and fastened by a 
thin piece of the clay to the main part ; both are firmly 
united when baked. The thin piece is called a 
''slipr 

What takes place after molding? 

The vessels are carefully examined, andl)eing placed 
on the potter's wheel, all the roughness is soon re- 
moved. 

How are ornamental figures made ? 

This is accomplished by skillful carving with a knife. 



6o PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

After drying^ does the ware come out in good shape ? 

Not always ; frequently by shrinking unequally it is 
distorted so as to be useless. Therefore great care is 
required in this part of the process. 

Ifow is it done ? 

The articles are put on shelves where the heat of 
the sun or fire may not act directly on them. 

Explain the method of baking the ware ? 

It is placed in drum-shaped clay vessels called 
" Seggars,''' which being piled on each other fill the 
kilns. 

How are the kilns heated / 

By fire which passes through flues on the outside. 
Of course these kilns are so made as not to be af- 
fected by the flame and smoke, as the ware that is 
placed in them would be discolored. 

How long are kilns kept hot ? 

The time varies with different kinds of ware. The 
French Porcelain usually requires from 25 to 30 
hours. 

IVhat is then done ? 

The kiln is closed for five or eight days, so that 
the ware may be perfectly annealed. 

When taken out, a-re all the articles perfects 

No ; usually about \ are found either out of shape 
or otherwise injured. 

What is done with the others ? 

They are finished off with a grinding wheel, etc., 
which removes any slight defects. 



METHOD OF MAKING POTTERV AND PORCELAIN. 6 1 

How is the coloring applied ? 

In various ways, according to clie taste of the artist, 
or the use for which the vessels are designed. 

Is the color put o?i before or after glazing "i 

Sometimes before, and sometimes after. There are 
two sorts of colors. One kind is called " refractory," 
because they will stand the heat of the furnace. 
These are applied before glazing. 

What name is given to the other colors 1 

They are called " muffle^' from the kind of furnace 
in which they are burned. These are added after the 
ware is baked. 

Where is the best porcelain now made ? 

That at Sevres in France is considered the finest ; 
it bears the name of the city in which it is manufac- 
tured: 

What prices have been paid for this ware ? 

Single vases, only 12 or 15 inches high, have often 
been sold for ^5000 ; Majolica plates for ^500 ; Chinese 
antique vases for ;^ 1,500. 

What may be seen at the Porcelain Museum of Sevres ? 

In this collection are found specimens of every 
kind of ware, from the coarsest to the finest. 

Are all of them complete ? 

Many of them are unfinished in order to show the 
process of manufacture in all its branches, as well as 
the great improvements that have been made. 

CaJi a stranger understand the work without a guide 1 

Yes, perfectly ; for each piece is labelled with a 



62 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

short description of the date, place where it was made, 
materials employed, and use to which it was applied, 
etc. 

Are most of the specimens of recent date ? 

The labels show that they belong to various 
periods, from the earliest and rudest attempts, to the 
latest and most finished specimens, so that the whole 
history of Pottery and Porcelain may be read in this 
Museum at Sevres. 



SECTION IV. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAPER. 

As we examine' the different inventions and discoveries of 
man, do we find all of equal importance ? 

By no means ; some are of but little use, while 
others are almost indispensable to our comfort. 

What rank may be given to the invention of paper ? 

It is one of the first, if not the verj/ first in impor- 
tance. 

Can you give any reasons for this ? 

The more useful any thing is, the more we value it, 
and paper being applied to so many different pur- 
poses, it becomes, of course, very valuable. 

Will you mention some of the uses for which it is made 1 

We find it most necessary in printing and writing : 
it is also used for covering the walls of rooms, and 
boxes, wrapping goods, etc. 

Are there many varieties ? 

Yes, very many ; as bank-note, tissue, cartridge, 
filtering, blotting, etc. 



64 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Is the art of making paper as old as other inventions 1 

It is not suiDposed to be, although we are unable to 
give the exact date of it. 

What was used instead of paper ? 

The skins of animals, very carefully dressed, called 
parchment, was a substitute for paper. 

How was it used ? 

The writing generally appeared only on one side, 
but as the parchment was very valuable, the same 
piece could be used several times by erasing the pre- 
vious writing. 

When and by what nation was it first adopted ? 

We are not certain upon this point, as various au- 
thors disagree regarding it, but it is known to have 
been used at least 1400 b.c, by the Egyptians. 

What have sometimes been found in the tombs of the an- 
cients .? 

Frequently rolls of leather — more or less carefully 
dressed — are taken out, on which are inscribed the 
name, age, etc., of the person buried, with the date of 
his death, and any remarkable events connected there- 
with. 

Is parchment still used 7 

Yes, to some extent, because nothing else has been 
found as a substitute. 

For what pufposes ? 

The finer kind, called vellum, is employed for im- 
portant writings, as deeds, wills, diplomas, etc. 



PAPER. 65 

From what is it made 1 

From the skins of calves, kids, and sometimes 
lambs. 

Is there a coarser kind ? 

Yes ; and that is more generally called parchment, 
being used for drum-heads. 

From what is that made ? 

The skins of goats, wolves, and asses are chiefly 
used for the purpose. 

Can you tell me the process for making parchment ? 

All the hair is first removed from the skin ; it is 
then thrown into a lime-pit, to cleanse the grease; 
after this it must be stretched in a frame, so fixed as 
to draw the skin as tightly as possible that there may 
be no wrinkles. 

What is next done ? 

A workman takes a sharp knife shaped something 
like a sickle, and pares away any pieces of flesh that 
may still adhere to the skin ; then turning the frame 
over, scrapes off the dirt, lime, etc., on the other side. 

How is the surface smoothed ? 

Sifted chalk, or slaked lime is scattered on the inner 
side, and rubbed with pumice-stone. The outer is 
also dressed, but only with the pumice. 

Is the skin dried very quickly ? 

No ; quite gradually, and in summer it must be 
moistened occasionally that it may dry slowly enough. 
In winter great care is taken to guard it against the 
frost. 

5 



66 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What is the next operation ? 

When thoroughly dried and stretched, the skin is 
removed from the frame, and pared down about half 
its thickness, and again rubbed with pumice. 

JIow is the smooth polish given to it ? 

This is done by brushing it over with the white of an 
Qgg, or solution of gum arable. 

What was formerly used besides parchment 1 

From the earliest ages papyrus — which is the Latin 
word for paper — has been made in great quantities. 

Why is it so called ? 

It is a name given to certain kind of plants that 
grow in marshy places and also in clear water, from 
which the papyrus for paper is made. 

In what countries is it found ? 

The nut-grass in our Southern States, and also the 
common bulrush, which the poorer people of England 
use for candle-wicks by burning the pith, are specimens 
of it. 

Is papyrus for making paper like the above ? 

It differs somewhat, being found on the marshy 
banks of rivers in Syria, Sicily, and Abyssinia. The 
plant was formerly very abundant on the borders of 
the river Nile, but it is doubtful whether any can 
now be found in Egypt 

Was if valued in that country ? 

Yes ; it was greatly esteemed, not only for pa- 
per which was made from it, but also for many other 
uses, to which it was applied. 



PAPER. ^J 

What were some of them ? 

It was employed for medical purposes, especially in 
the cure of ulcers, etc. ; also torches and candles, 
boat-sails, ropes, mats, garments, coverlets, shoes for 
the priests, etc., were manufactured from it. 
Were the roots of any zise? 

Yes ; being as large as a man's arm, they were good 
for fuel ; cups and other articles were also made of 
them. The plant was even used for food, being eaten 
raw, boiled or roasted ; the sweet juice of it, however, 
was the only part to be swallowed. 

How was the papyrus made into paper f 

The stem was divided by a fine needle into thin 
plates as large as the plant would make. These were 
spread on a table which was moistened with Nile 
water. Across these other similar sheets were laid. 

Of what use was the water ? 

It dissolved the slimy substance in the plant, and 
made the sheets stick close together, when laid under 
a heavy press. 

What was then done ? 

The sheets were hung up in the sun to dry, and 
afterwards rolled on a wooden cylinder. 

Is papyrus still used for paper? 

No ; for a long time it has ceased to be employed 
for that purpose. It was gradually disappearing in 
the nth and 12th centuries, when cotton and linen 
began to be substituted for it. 

Where are rolls of papyri of tejt found? 

They may be seen in nearly all the mummy cases. 



68 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

For what purpose were they placed there ? 

As the hieroglyphic characters on all of them are 
nearly the same, it is supposed they were intended as a 
sort of passport, which the bearer could present for 
admission into the other world. 

Have any important sheets of Papyri been found re' 
cently f 

Yes ; a Frenchman named Mariette Bey discovered 
150 rolls at Memphis in Egypt, giving much valuable 
information regarding the religion and government 
of the country. 



EARLY HISTORY OF PAPER. 69 



CHAPTER IL 

EARLY HISTORY OF PAPER. 

How long has papef been Mads from linen and coh 
ton? 

This is not certainly known. In Europe we find it 
jfirst used in the lOth and nth centuries, as we have 
already said. But the art seems to have been under- 
stood in other countries long before this. 

By what nations wds it made f 

By the Arabians and Persians, who probably in* 
troduced it into Europe. The people in other parts 
of Asia also produce it from various materials. 

What have the Chinese done ? 

The art among them is very ancient ; each province 
having its own peculiar kind of paper. 

What ihaterials do they use f 

Sometimes the inner bark of tfees, which is formed 
into a pulp and worked into paper. It is said that in 
the province of Se-chuen they made it of linen rags as in 
Europe ; and in Fo-kein the young bamboo is used for 
the same purpose. 



fO PRACTIGAL SClliNCfi, 

How is it made from this plant f 

The portion to be used is cut into pieces Several 
feet long, and soaked in water for several days, then 
dried by covering it with slaked lime. 

What is the next process ^ 

After drying, it is thoroughly washed, cut into 
strips, dried again and bleached in the sun, then 
boiled in water, and beaten to a pulp in a wooden 
mortar. 

What is now added ? 

The solution of a certain gum is mixed with the 
pulp by beating it again in mortars. After this the 
whole is poured into tubs. 

Is it now ready to form into pap evf 

Yes ; and this is done by a workman who takes out 
enough for a sheet of the size he wishes to make- 
This is placed in a mould to be shaped and partly 
dried. 

What then follows? 

The drying is finished by placing the sheets on hot 
air pipes, and the final smoothness given to the papef 
by dipping in a solution of alum. 

Are the Japanese as skillful aS the Chinese in mak" 
ing paper? 

Yes ; and even more so. That which they manufac- 
ture is so strong and durable, that it can be used for 
many purposes to which cloth is applied. 

What does it resemble f 

Some of it looks so much like silk and cotton, that 
it is almost impossible to tell them apart. 



EARLY HISTORY OF PAPER. 7 1 

IV/iai cmt you say of the origin, etc., of paper from 
coiton and linen f 

Gibbon, the English historian, says that the art was 
carried to Samarcand from China in the year 651, and 
to Mecca in 707. 

Was linen first used in making it ? 

No ; it is generally supposed that cotton was taken 
before linen. 

In what country do we find much paper made front 
linen f 

In two provinces of Spain, where flax and hemp 
are raised in great quantities. 

What is the oldest specimen of linen paper in that 
country ? 

The one bearing the earliest date, 11/8, is a treaty 
of peace between Arragon and Spain. 

When was the art introduced in to other countries'? 

In France in 1314 ; about the same time into Ger- 
many. Fifty years later we find it in Italy. It was 
used in England in the reign of Edward II,, although 
not very extensively, the people seeming still to 
prefer parchment or vellum. 

When was it first manufactured there ? 

It was made to some extent in the time of Henry 
VII., but the first great manufactory was carried on 
by John Spielman, a German, who was the jeweller to 
Queen Elizabeth. 

Was enough the?i made for the use of the peo^ 
plef 

No ; for the progress of the business was so slow,that 



f2 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

even in the 1 7th century> the EngHsh were obliged to 
obtain much from France. 

IV/iai at length caused a change for the better ? 

On account of troubles in the government of France 
many of the people, called refugees, were obHged to 
leave that country. They fled to England, bringing 
with them some of the trades of their own country, 
among which paper-making was then one of the most 
important. 

Did they excel in the art ? 

Yes ; the paper made by them was considered the 
best, and we find the exiles carrying on the business 
Very extensively in England, then their adopted coun- 
try. 

What kind of paper was made at first? 

It was nearly all brotvn. But in 1690 special 
attention was given to the manufacture of the 
white. 

Did any changes take place in Germany f 

After using linen and cotton for some time, in 1756, 
they first attempted making paper from straw, and 
afterwards from the bark of the linden or bass-wood 
tree. 

Can you mention any improvement among the 
French ? 

The sheets had been limited in size, but in 1798 
Louis Robert announced that he had invented a 
machine by which rolls of it could be made 12 feet wide 
and 50 feet long. This was doubtless the first step 
towards manufacturing wall-paper. 



EARLY HISTORY OF PAPER. ^ 73 

Soon after, what change in the materials took place 
hi England f 

Matthias Koops, in 1800, produced 100 reams of 
good white paper per week, from old waste pieces 
which had either been written or printed before. 

What else did he use ? 

He made better paper from straw, wood, and other 
vegetable products, than had yet been produced from 
any materials. 

As we turn nozv to our own country, when do we find 
the first paper-mill established here ? 

The earliest of which we have any account, was 
erected in 1714 upon Chester Creek, Del. Mr. Wil- 
cox, who afterwards bought it, furnished Benjamin 
Franklin with all that he used in his printing estab- 
lishment. 

What can you say of this mill 1 

It is still in operation and owned by a son of Mr. 
Wilcox. The process of making paper by hand, as it 
was done a century ago, may yet be seen there. 

Could the materials for making it be readily obtained? 

No ; the demand for paper soon became so great 
that it was impossible to supply the orders received. 

What was one cause of this ? 

People had not yet formed the habit of saving the 
waste scraps of cotton or linen, and even though carts 
went round to collect them, it seemed difficult to ob- 
tain what was needed. 

What effort was made to increase the supply ? 
Premiums were offered for any person who would 



74 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

make the greatest quantity of paper from other mate- 
rials than rags, « 

Did this remove the trouble ? 

Not entirely, for it was found necessary to import 
rags from Europe, Italy and Austria, furnishing 
at least three-fourths of the whole amount ship- 
ped. 

How were the machines for making paper worked at 
first ? 

The simplest form was by hand ; then horse-powei 
was employed, and in 1816, at Pittsburgh, steam be- 
gan to be used. 

What part of the material was taken i7t the early 
days of paper making ? 

Only the finest and best ; but, as improvements 
were made in cleansing and bleaching, the coarser 
parts could also be used. 

Did the demand still contimce f 

It was constantly increasing, so that in 1852 more 
paper was consumed in the U. S. than in France and 
England together. 

What materials arc now fowzd statable for making 
the article f 

All those vegetable substances that can be turned 
into pulp by being crushed and mixed with water. 
Which seem best adapted for the purpose ? 

Nothing has been found more suitable than flax 
and cotton ; and they can be more readily used, 
when in the form of rags, than in the raw material, 
or when just woven. 



EARLY HlSTORV OF PAfER. 75 

IVAy is this so f 

By the constant wearing and washing of the cloth, 
the rags are already half prepared for forming paper, as 
they will be more easily converted into pulp. 

Can paper be made very quickly ? 

Yes ; by the great improvements of the day, rags 
can be shipped in the morning several miles, and 
manufactured into paper before night. 

What objection to this method of making it f 

It has been found that paper turned out so rapidly 
is not as strong and durable as if more time had been 
employed. 

Can yon mention any other improvements besides 
those already given ? 

It was supposed that white paper could only be 
made from cotton and linen rags, at least the kind 
used for writing and printing, while the cheap brown 
wrapping-paper was manufactured from the coarser 
materials, as old ropes, and the waste from cotton mills. 

. What are the facts now? 

The finest white, and even delicate tissue paper can 
be made from both coarse and fine materials : an ex- 
cellent article is now produced from the cane found so 
abundantly in the Southern swamps, also from hem- 
lock and bassrwood ; the latter is not however con- 
sidered as good a material as some others. 

How was the cane formed into pulp ? 

The process proved at first slow and difficult, as it 
was necessary to boil it in a strong solution of alkali 
and then bleach it. 



^6 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

How is the work now done ? 

A curious American invention accomplished it much 
more easily. The long canes were put into a very 
strong iron cylinder, so as to bear great pressure from 
the steam which was forced in. 

What effect was produced by this f 

The result was similar to that of powder shot from 
a gun. 

Explain it. 

On opening one end of the cylinder, the power of 
the steam was so great that it forced the cane out very 
suddenly, tearing it into fine threads. 

Did ajiy tJiing remain ? 

Yes ; around the cylinder the hard outer covering 
of the cane was crushed into a white, pure mass of 
material ready to be formed into pulp. 

Has this machine been applied to any thing else ? 

Logs of bass or white wood have been successfully 
treated in the same way. 
' What may be seen at the Smithsonian Institute ? 

The copy of a work written by Schaffer, a German, 
in 1 772, upon the various ways of making paper out of 
other materials than rags. 

What is there remarkable about this book ? 

It is printed on more than sixty kinds of paper 
formed from as many different substances. 

What other curious work can you mention ? 

The writings of the Marquis de Villette, published 
in London in 1786, are printed on paper made of 
marsh-mallow. 



EARLY HISTORY OF PAPER. 77 

W/iat is at the end of the book ? 

There are single leaves, made at Bruges, of 20 
species of plants, as nettles, hops, moss, reed, various 
kinds of trees, herbs, etc. 

How many materials have thus far been used in 
fnaking paper ? 

One author mentions 103 substances, mostly vege- 
table, with a few mineral and animal. 

What do we learn from all this ? 

That many objects in nature, which appear almost 
worthless, have been found among the most useful. 

Has every 7iatural production been used for some 
purpose f 

No ; there are many things that yet seem useless 
to us, but in time will doubtless be found very val- 
uable. 

Why have we reason to think so ? 

Discoveries of that kind are being constantly made : 
and for a still better reason, because Almighty God 
has some wise design in every thing He makes, even 
the vilest insect, as well as the smallest vegetable 
and mineral product. 



^8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER III. 

METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 

In the manufacture of paper are the raw materials 
ready for use ? 

By -no means : so that it is at first necessary to 
prepare them ; of course different methods are re- 
quired for the various materials. 

If rags are used what is the process ? 

One method is the following : The rags are first 
cut into narrow strips by women seated at a table, the 
top being covered with a net-work which allows the 
dust to fall through. 

Is a machine used for cutting them ? 

The only machine "is a knife blade fastened upright 
to the table ; across this the rags are cut. The 
buttons, hooks and eyes being laid aside, also silk and 
woollen pieces. 

After cutting, where are the rags placed? 

They are thrown into a large box near the table, 
which is divided into several parts to receive them 
according to their quality, etc, ; all the loose dirt is then 
shaken out by a machine. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 79 

What is next done f 

The rags are carried to the boiler, which is partly- 
filled with a solution of different substances, that all 
the color may be taken out of them. Sometimes 
very strong lye is required for this purpose, also soda. 

Is tJie lye used for any thing else ? 

Yes ; it will dissolve the hard rough particles that 
are often found, which if not removed would make un- 
even places in the paper. It also washes out much 
of the dirt remaining on the rags. 

Is the solution warm or cold ? 

It is warm. The best method for heating all parts 
equally is by means of steam pipes. The round boil- 
ers, being placed on their side, are made to revolve so 
that the lye is constantly working through the whole 
of the mixture. 

Why is this necessary f 

If it were not done, some portions being cleansed 
and bleached more than the rest, the paper would come 
out discolored and imperfect. 

How much can be put in the boilers at oncef 

Several hundred weight of rags are boiled together. 
Then steam at a high pressure is applied, which has- 
tens the work. 

How long does this process continue ? 

It is usually finished in about 8 or lo hours. 

What now takes place ? 

The rags are next converted into pulp. 

Hozv zvas this formerly done ? 

The rags were placed in stone vats where they re- 



80 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

mained for several weeks, and by the aid of heat and 
moisture would ferment, after which they were 
beaten in wooden mortars. 

How were these mortars made ? 

There was a cavity in the bottom covered with a 
thick iron plate, the top of which was grooved, as were 
also the mallets for pounding. 

How was the moistiu'e from the rags carried off f 

By means of a hole in the mortar, which was pro- 
tected by hair cloth, to prevent the particles from 
passing through. 

What is now used as a substitute for the mortar ? 

A machine called the " Engine," invented by the 
Dutch. 

How many of these are required at once ? 

Two engines are usually worked together, the 
" washer " and " beater," both on the same plan. 

What is the object of the tivo ? 

One is for cleansing the rags, and the other for 
rubbing and forming them into pulp. 

Are they connected f 

Sometimes the " beater " is placed under the 
" washer," or each can be used separately ; the latter 
is the usual method, so that the cleansing may be well 
done. 

How are the rags formed into pulp ? 

The "washer" and "beater" each contain a solid 
cylinder; that in the former has 40 steel bars or ribs 
running lengthwise, the latter 60. On the floor of 
the engine, a corresponding set of bars is firmly fixed. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 8 1 

Of what use are the bars f 

By the working of the " Engine," the rags are 
rubbed against them and crushed very fine into pulp, 
without being actually cut. 

Does the machin:. work very rapidly ? 

It can easily be made to do so, but it is better to 
work it more slowly, as the quality of the paper will 
be thereby improved. 

How is water used during the operation f ^ 

A constant stream falls into the cylinder at the 
same time that the dirty water passes out below. 

How is it known when the pulp - is perfectly 
formed ? 

By the motion of the machine. 

Explain this more fully. 

When the cylinder begins to work the motion is 
very irregular, moving roughly and by jerks. 

To what is this owing f 

It is caused by the coarseness of the rags, which do 
not pass easily between the bars. But as they be-, 
come gradually crushed, the motion of the engine 
is more regular, and at length quite steady. 

What does this prove? 

It shows that the pulp is perfectly formed. 

What length of time is required for this process ? 

The best paper requires three or four hours, although 
as we have said, it may be done in much less time, but 
the result is not so satisfactory. 

Explain the method of bleaching ? 

The pulp passes out of the cylinder by means of a 



82 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

pipe to the draining chest, where much of the moist- 
ure escapes '. it is then put in stone cisterns. 
What materials are used for bleaching ? 

A solution of chloride of lime with about one pound 
of salt to two gallons of water. 

Does this remain in the cistern f 

No ; for the bottom being made of zinc, perforated with 
fine holes, the liquid passes through, but by means of a 
pump is brought up again,when stronger liquor is added. 

How long does the pulp remain in the bleaching 
mixture f 

About 24 hours, when it comes out nearly white. 

What is noiv done with the pulp ? 

Sometimes it is put under a very heavy press, that 
all the chlorine moisture may be removed, or it is 
taken directly to the " beater,^' which works like the 
washing engine already described. 

Why is it necessary to remove the chlorine water ? 

Because if any remains in the pulp, the paper be- 
comes very brittle and will crumble to pieces. 

What is now added ? 

The sizing and coloring matter, unless the paper is 
to be white. 

What is the sizing f 

It is a preparation which makes the surface smooth 
and glossy. 

Of what is it composed? 

Soda and rosin are mixed together forming a kind 
of soap, then alum is added, which causes the rosin to 
unite with the pulp. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 83 

How long does the mixture remain iti the " beater" ? 

The beating operation usually requires from three 
to four hours, when the pulp passes into a large vat. 

What was the method formerly adopted for forming 
the pulp into sheets f 

It was done almost entirely by hand. The work- 
man took a shallow, mahogany box, called a mold, 
which was a little larger than the sheet to be made. 
This was covered with fine wires, and around it was 
placed a loose frame of the exact size required for the 
paper. 

What was the next step in the process f 

The workman then shook some of the pulp on the 
wires in such a way that it would spread evenly over 
them, while the moisture passed through. 

What was done with this mold f 

It was passed over to another man called a " coucher," 
who set it up on edge to dry. He then spread a 
piece of felt cloth on a table, and turned over the 
sheet in the mold upon it. 

What followed f 

A piece of felt was placed above the sheet of pulp ;. 
and the same process was continued until about 130 
sheets were so arranged, each one separated by a 
piece of felt. They were then put under a heavy 
press, when much moisture flowed out. 

Was the operation then finished ? 

No ; much yet remained to be done. 

Explain still further. 

After remaining under press for some time, the 



»4 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

sheets were taken out separately and piled up by them- 
selves, pressed again, then a second time taken apart 
and pressed once more. 
What ivas now done ? 

The paper was hung up on hair lines to dry ; this 
could be done in 24 hours if the weather was favorable. 
It was then sized by dipping in a preparation of glue 
and alum. 

Was the woj'k now ended f 

No ; the sheets required another pressure to remove 
the sizing if there should be too much, and were again 
hung on the lines to be dried more gradually than be- 
fore, so that the sizing would thoroughly penetrate the 
paper. 

What was finally done ? 

The sheets were laid on glazed paper boards and 
hot metal plates applied through the pile, or smooth 
copper plates were rolled between the sheets. 

What length of time was reqidred for this process f 

It was generally three weeks from the time the 
rags were sorted until the paper was ready for sale, and 
for every vat, from which almost 150 lbs. could be 
made, eight men and as many women were employed. 

In IV hat time can this same work nozv be accom- 
plished? 

As we have before said, it may all be completed 
in a single day. 

To what are we indebted for this great improvement ? 

It is owing to the invention of the Fourdiinier ma- 
chine. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 85 

State some of the advantages of this machine. 

A much greater quantity can be made in the same 
time at far less cost. The paper is produced of any 
size or quality required, either thick, as that for flour 
bags, or thin, as tissue paper. 

Ca7i yon. mention any other benefits f 

The sorting, trimming, drying, etc., is now unneces- 
sary, this having been the longest part of the opera- 
tion. 

Is the paper of as good quality as that made by hand f 

Yes ; and even superior to it ; if the work is not done 
too quickly, it is also equally strong and durable. 

What proof can yon give of this ? 

Mr. Herring, an Englishman, among different kinds 
of paper, exhibited a specimen which was of the thick- 
ness of ordinary letter paper, the piece not larger than 
a bank note, yet it would bear a weight of 200 lbs. 

Will yon explain the method of making paper by 
the Fonrdrinier machine f 

Before passing into this machine, the rags are sorted, 
very carefully, cut by machinery, and passed into 
a rotary boiler holding about two tons ; steam being 
admitted, they are then boiled. 

What is done with them now ? 

They are taken to the lower story and carried by 
cars to the washing engine, where the cleansing and 
bleaching process takes place as we have befpre de- 
scribed. 

What is done with the pulp when formed f 
' It is thrown into an immense vat, which stands at 



86 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

the head of the Fourdrinier machine, and constantly- 
stirred so that the thickness may be the same through- 
out. 

How is it taken from the vat f 

There is a stop-cock at the bottom by means of 
which the pulp may pass out as required, and accord- 
ing to the thickness of the paper to be made. 
Sometimes pumps are used, giving out equal quantities 
in equal portions of time. 

What is done with the pidp as it leaves the vat f 

It flows upon a "lifter wheel," and is then diluted 
with water drained from a web of paper. 

Of what use is the wheel ? 

It carries the mixture into a trough called a " sand 
trap," which is 4 or 5 inches deep and 20 to 40 feet 
long. 

Why is it so called ? 

Because if any particles of sand still remain in 
the pulp, they settle to the bottom, and the rest will 
pass out through the strainer at the side of the 
trough. 

What becomes of the hard, knotty particles that may 
still remaifi in the mixture ? 

They will be caught by the strainer, and only the 
soft, pure part passes off. 

How were they formerly removed f 

They were picked out of the paper by hand, while 
it was drying, many sheets were thereby defective, so 
that often one in every five would be cast aside as 
useless. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. 8/ 

What becomes of the pulp after leaving the strainer f 

It flows into a vat which is as long as the width of 
the sheet to be made, and then passes out of one side 
upon the " wire." 

What is the wire f 

It is an endless web of wire cloth so fine that there 
are from 3000 to 5000 holes to the square inch. 

Upon what does it rest f 

The "wire" is supported on rollers, by which it is 
carried round from 25 to 70 ft. per minute. 

W^iat regulates the width of the ptUp upon it ? 

Flexible straps or " ^/zV/^/^i- " are arranged on each 
side according to the required width of the paper. 

Of what are the dickies tnade f 

They are formed of several layers of linen or cot- 
ton gummed, or of vulcanized rubber* 

What change takes place in the pulp f 

As the moisture is gradually pressed out by means 
of a heavy cylinder under which it passes, tke pulp 
unites more and more closely. 

What is of ten fastened to this roll or cylinder ? 

Very fine wire, in the form of letters or figures, 
being sewed to it, the impression is left on the pulp, 
causing the "water lines^'' as they are called, in the 
paper. 

Are these figures of any use f 

Yes ; it is from them that the different names given 
to paper are known. 

Give some examples. 

The style of paper known as " cap " or " fool's-cap " 



88 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

was SO called from the figure of a fool's cap and bells 
appearing in the water lines. " Post " paper has the 
design of a postman's horn, etc. 

Have these marks been applied to any very useful 
purpose f 

By marking them upon checks, bank-notes, etc., it is 
much more difficult to counterfeit. 

What is done to make these impressions more last- 
ing f 

Suction boxes are placed under the web of pulp 
when the wire figures are applied, these draw out the 
moisture very quickly, leaving the figures more distinct 
and durable. 

After leaving the suction boxes, what becomes of the 
paper web ? 

It passes on to the " couch rolls." 

What are these ? 

They are rollers covered with felt, one of them carry- 
ing the wire, while the upper one presses down upon 
the paper and wire between them. 

What is then done? 

After being sufficiently pressed, the wire cloth 
passes back to the trough from which it came, to be 
used again, while the web passes on to an endless 
piece of felt. 

Is it now dry ? 

No ; it is still very wet and must therefore be placed 
with the felt between a pair of very heavy cast iron 
rollers, so that nearly all the moisture may be pressed 
out. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER, 89 

Does not the impression of the felt remain upon the 
web? 

It would unless care was taken to remove it. 

How is this done ? 

The web of paper being now able to support itself, 
is turned over, and that which was the upper side 
before is now pressed on a piece of felt between a 
pair of press rolls. 

What is the 7iext step in the process ? 

The sheet passes on to the drying cylinders. 

How are they made ? 

These are hollow cast-iron rollers heated by steam 
forced into them. 

Hozv many are used at once ? 

The number varies in different mills, sometimes 
20 are used. 

Explain the method of dryijig. 

The first cylinder is heated a very little ; in the 
second it is increased a few degrees, the third is still 
warmer, and thus the heat is gradually increased until 
we come to the last one, where it is the greatest of 
all. 

Why are the sheets dried in this way f 

It has been found that by so doing the paper is 
stronger and more durable than if only a few cylin- 
ders were taken. 

What is now done with the paper ? 

It is either wound directly upon a reel, or first 
passed through several sets of calender rolls, that the 
surface may be smoothed and finished 



90 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

How IS the sizing applied for printing paper? 

As we have already said, the glue and alum are 
mixed with the pulp. 

Is the method the same for writing paper ? 

No ; the sizing for that is now usually applied to the 
web, by passing it through a solution of gelatine and 
alum, heated to about lOo" F. 

How is it dried ? 

This is done very quickly by running the web over 
several drums,the surface of which is pierced with holes. 

Of what use are these openings ? 

By means of a revolving fan, a strong current of 
heated air is made to blow upon the sheet, which dries 
it very rapidly. 

Is the old method of drying on lines still in use f 

Yes ; in some mills we find it practiced, and the 
paper thus prepared is much stronger than by the hot- 
air plan. 

How large are the sheets thus made ? 

They are usually about 54 inches wide ; the machine 
running off 600 yards an hour, or a mile in three hours. 

How are the sheets cut ? 

They are divided lengthwise by pairs of circular 
knives which revolve, one below and a larger one 
above the sheet, the movement being like that of a 
pair of scissors. 

How are they cut across ? 

When the required length of paper is measured by 
the machine, two knives, one fixed, the other movable, 
also act like scissors upon the sheet. 



METHOD OF MAKING PAPER. QI 

Explain how the paper is made to move along regu- 
larly. 

A part of the machine, called the " dmm" brings 
the sheet forward until it is of the right length, when 
it is held fast by two blocks, and the cutting takes 
place, the " drum " then returns for more paper and 
thus constantly works back and forth. 

How is the glazing given to very fine writing paper ? 

This is done by placing polished sheets of copper 
between the paper and then rolling it. By repeating 
the operation several times the finish is greatly im- 
proved. 

Are all the sheets found perfect whett finished ? 

No ; very many appear defective that seemed to be 
well made before passing through the glazing process. 

What is do7ie with them ? 

They are cast into the waste basket, and converted 
again into paper. 

Ca7t you m.ention any other uses, than those already 
mentioned, to which this article is applied ? 

We find that it answers many other purposes. Paste- 
board, paper-boxes, paper-hangings, sheathing for 
vessels, carpets, the outer layer on the covers of books, 
etc., etc., are also made of it. 

Can all of these articles be made by the hourdrinier 
machine ? 

Yes ; this machine is arranged, and the parts all 
connected, so that the whole process is carried on by 
it, from the pouring of the pulp into the vat, until the 
paper comes out at the other end complete and perfect. 



SECTION V. 



CHAPTER I. 

PRINTING. 

Does Printing rank among the ajtcient or modem 
arts ? 

It may be classed among both. 

Explain how this can be. 

The simplest form of printing has been practiced 
by different nations from the earliest periods. But 
the wonderful improvements made in this art in latter 
ages may cause it to be regarded as a modern invention. 

Will you m.ention some proofs that the ancients under- 
stood the art. 

The bficks taken from the ruins of Egypt and As- 
syria are marked with characters formed in the clay. 
The Israelites used seals and signets — the Romans 
had stamps for marking the maker's or owner's name 
upon different articles, and also for branding cattle. 

How may the idea of printing as we now understand 
it have been suggested to the inventors ? 

The ruins of which we have spoken probably had 



PRINTING. 93 

something to do with it, also the directions given by 
Cicero in one of his books regarding metal types, 
which he calls " forms of letters." 

Before the invention of printing, as we now have it, 
how were records made f 

Entirely by writings, which of course required a 
great amount of time and labor. 

What then are the principal advantages gai7ted by 
this art f 

Books, papers, etc., have multiplied very rapidly, 
knowledge of all kinds is widely diffused, and thereby 
education becomes not only more general, but it is 
also very thorough, and of a higher order. 

When we read the history of ancient nations, what 
appears strange to us ? 

As we discover the progress they had made in 
many of the arts and sciences, being even superior to 
us in some of them, it seems strange that they should 
have come so near the invention of movable types, and 
yet not have used them for so long a time. 

What is probably the cause of this f 

It may be owing to the fact that they had no 
material, like our paper, which would receive the 
impression of the type. 

When were these types first adopted? 

Not until the 15 th century. 

Had other nations substituted any thing for this art f 

Yes ; the earliest records of the Chinese, Japanese 
and Tartars show that they were accustomed to print 
all their books from engraved blocks. 



94 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Do they still retain this method f 

Yes ; strange as it may seem, they do nearly all their 
printing in this way. 

Can you gii)e any reason for it. 

Their love for old customs is so strong, that it is 
almost impossible to change them for others far better. 

How do they regard themselves f 

The people of Asia, particularly the Chinese, have so 
good an opinion of themselves, that they will hardly 
believe any other nation can excel their own, and this 
is another reason for not adopting modern inventions 
more readily. 

Have they made much progress in the arts f 

In some things they show even more skill than the 
Europeans. 

For what are we indebted to them ? 

The manufacture of silk, China lacquered ware, etc., 
originated in China, and doubtless the idea of printing 
was suggested to Europeans, by seeing their modern 
block. 

Are the Chinese still as reserved as ever ? 

Within a few years intercourse has been opened 
with China by means of treaties between that country 
and the U. S., by which there is more freedom of 
communication. 

Have they adopted any of our inventions ? 

Yes ; to a limited extent. The Japanese seem to do 
so more readily than the Chinese. Our system of 
education is now being generally introduced into both 
Empires, 



PRINTING, 95 

Will you explain their method of printing from 
blocks. 

The first step in the process is to paste the page, 
which has been written on tracing paper, face down- 
wards, upon a block of hard wood. 

What does the engraver then do f 

He cuts away the wood and paper not marked by 
lines, leaving the latter raised up, and the printer, 
with a fine brush dipped in ink blackens the whole 
surface. 

How is the impression taken from this f 

By laying upon the block a sheet of blank paper, 
and pressing it down with a soft dry brush. 

How many pages can be printed at a time in this 
way ? 

Only two, having a line between them, by which 
the sheet is folded back to back. The open edges 
are bound together, v/hile the closed one is in front. 

Why are the leaves bound in this way ? 

Because only one side of the whole sheet is printed. 



96 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER n. 

THE MODERN METHOD OF PRINTING. 

To whom are we indebted for this great invention f 

As often happens in similar cases many persons 
claim the. lionon The City of Haarlem, in Holland, 
affirm that Laurens Janzoon Coster invented the art 
of printing in 1423 by using movable types of wood 
and afterwards of lead and tin. 

Can any certain proofs of this be given ? 

No ; as printed works by him cannot be produced. 

Why is it difficult to settle this question satisfac- 
torily ? 

Because the invention of printings like many others, 
was not wholly accomplished by one man. 

How was it done ? 

Various experiments were made by different persons, 
neither of which was completely successful, but all 
prepared the way, more or less, for the fortunate re- 
sult. 



THE MODERN METHOD OF PRINTING. 97 

What person is now generally believed to have aided 
most in the work, so as to be called the inventor of 
printing ? 

This great honor doubtless belongs to Johannes, or 
John Gutenberg. 

What can you say of his efforts ? 

He commenced by making experiments at Stras- 
bourg, but kept the secret very carefully, until 1438, 
when it became known that he had made a printing 
press and movable types. 

Did he produce any books ? 

Not then. But in 1450 he returned to his native 
city, Mentz, where he had as partner Johann Faust, 
a wealthy gentleman, who agreed to furnish funds for 
carrying on the business in return for the secrets 
Gutenberg revealed to him. 

Who became their assistant ? 

Peter Schaffer, who had been employed for a long 
time in copying books. 

Was he fitted for the work ? 

Yes ; they could hardly have found one more so. 
He substituted metal types, cast in plaster moulds, 
for those before made by Gutenberg, which were 
carved out of wood or metal. Other improvements 
were also made by him. 

What success had these inventors ? 

They printed several books. The first, bearing any 
date, was in 1455, being the letters of Pope Nicholas V. 

What occurred soon after to check the work f 

The city of Mentz was besieged and captured by 



98 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Count Adolphus of Nassau, in 1462, when the printers 
were obliged to leave the country. 
Was not this a great misfortune ? 

So it s^eemed at first, but the result proved it to be 
the best thing that could have happened. 

Explain the reason. 

The printers were scattered in different places, and 
practised their business in the new homes they had 
found. The art of course was more widely known, 
spread very rapidly, and soon became an important 
branch of trade. 

Mention some of the places where it was introduced ? 

We find it at Subigeo, near Rome, in 1462 ; the 
types used there were more like the Roman form of 
letters, the Germans having imitated handwriting or 
adopted the Gothic form in their types. 

Can yon remember any other cities ? 

The art was also practiced in Milan and Venice, in 
1469, where the printers seemed particularly to excel. 
Was any ornament then used in printing ? 

Yes ; a great deal. Some of the designs were so 
beautiful, that the books were often purchased as much 
for the pictures with which they were ornamented, as 
for the reading matter contained therein. 

Was the value of the books always the same ? 

No ; as years passed on, the oldest editions were 
always in demand. 

What is the highest price ever paid for a book ? 

The greatest price given for a printed work was 
;^2, 260 or over ^11,000 The book was a collection 



THE MODERN METHOD OF PRINTING. 99 

of stories by an Italian author written in 1571. This 
fabulous sum was paid by the Marquis of Blandford 
in 1812. 

What progress did the art of prmtiiig make ? 

It was introduced into Paris in 1470, into London 
in 1474, and before the year 1500, less than 50 years 
after its invention, printing presses were in operation 
in 220 different cities of Europe. 

When was the first one used in our own country f 

The first printing press was introduced at Cam- 
bridge, Mass., in 1639. 

What can you say of those then tised f 

They were of course very simple in form, printing 
only four pages at a time, little improvement being 
made until the 17th century. 

What kind of hik was used? 

At first the ink was made of brown umber, ground 
very fine and diluted. 

Why was it preferred to the black ? 

It seemed to harmonize better with the various 
colors used to ornament each page, although the print- 
ers sometimes used both black and red. These col- 
ors were so deep and rich, that time does not seem to 
have affected them in the least. 

How did the first printing compare with that which 
is now executed ? 

It was of course very rude, and sometimes quite 
difficult to read. 

What was the cause of this ? 

The words would often run together, as the spaces 



100 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

were not regularly marked ; the punctuation was not 
correct, and abbreviations were often used. 

How were the capitals made ? 

Spaces were left for these, which were afterwards 
filled in with fancy letters by those who were skillful 
in the work, as the printers were not able to imitate 
them in type. 

What kind of ornaments were added f 

There was a great variety in them, the wide margin 
of the pages being filled with figures of saints, flowers, 
birds, animals, monsters, etc. 

Did these relate to the subject of the book f 

Very often they had nothing at all to do with it, 
being used merely for ornament. The date and name 
of the printer seldom appeared ; if found at all they 
were at the end of the book. 

When were the first decided improvements made in 
the art of printing f 

About the year 1750, John Baskerville, of Birming- 
ham, in England, by means of punches, produced a 
far better kind of type, so that the only changes since 
then have been to vary the forms of the letters, as 
well as the shading of the lines. 

Where do we find the greatest variety frequently 
used ? 

It is often seen in advertisements, handbills, cir- 
culars, etc. Some of the styles show great taste and 
skill on the part of the type-maker. 

Does the printer mamifacttire his own type? 

This was formerly the custom, but for more than 



THE MODERD METHOD OF PRINTING. 101 

2O0 years it has become a separate branch of the 
business. 

Will y oil mention the names of the different sizes of 
type now used? 

The Great Primer is the larg- 
est, except for handbills. Then 
follow in order of size 

English, Pica, Small Pica, 

Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier, 

Minion, Nonpareil, Agate., 

Pearl, Diamond., 

the last being the smallest as will be seen by the spec- 
imens given above. 

What is a font or fount ? 

It is a complete assortment of letters of one size, 
a certain number of each being necessary. For ex- 
ample, there must be three complete alphabets in 
Capitals, small capitals, and small or " lower case " 
letters as they are called, also the ff either united to, 
or separate from i and / ; diphthongs, figures, punctua- 
tion marks, the signs used for contractions, as &, $, 
£>, etc., besides references and other marks each one 
of which requires a separate piece of type. 

What are used to regulate the distances between 
words ? 

Those not separated by punctuation marks, require 
a square piece of plain metal as large as one of the 
small letters. One of these is placed between each 
word, as will be soon explained. 



I02 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Is any thing else necessary to make a complete ^^font " f 

Other forms of types are used for certain kinds of 

books, as those which treat of astronomy, mathematics, 

etc., but for general purposes, the above are sufficient. 

What does the following table show ? 
. It gives the usual number of each of the small let- 
ters with the more common punctuation marks found 
in a "font." 

a — 8,500 q — 500 

e-^i 2,000 r — 6,200 

i — 8,000 s — 8,000 

o — 8,000 t — 9,000 

u — 3,400 V — 1,200 

b — 1,600 w — 2,000 

c — 3,000 X — 400 

d — 4,400 • y — 2,000 

f — 2,517 z — 200 
g — 1.700 4,500 

h — 6,400 800 

j — 400 600 

k — 800 2,000 

1 — 4,000 Thick spaces 18,000 

m — 3,000 Middle " 12,000 

n — 8,000 Thin " 8,000 

p — 1,750 Hair " 3,000 



PROCESS OF PRINTING EXPLAINED. IO3 



CHAPTER III. 

' PROCESS OF PRINTING EXPLAINED. 

How are the letters in a "fofit'" arranged? 

For the convenience of the printer, the letters of 
one kind are placed in separate boxes or cells of two 
open cases arranged in a slanting position one above 
the other, so as to be more easily reached. The 
upper case contains the large and small capitals, with 
references, dashes, etc. 

What are kept in the lower case ? 

In this are found type of different sizes, adapted 
for any purpose required. The spaces, points, figures, 
etc., are also in this case. 

Has any improvement been made upon the above 
plan ? 

Yes ; Mr. Thomas N. Rooker of New York has so 
arranged the type that one case can be used instead 
of two. There is still another method invented by 
him, in which the boxes have movable bottoms, tha 
can be raised or lowered by a screw. 
What is the advantage of this ? 

The type-setter, or " compositor,^' as he is called, can 



I04 PRACTICA.L SCIENCE. 

thus have the letters nearer at hand, and is therefore 
able to do much more work in the same time. 

Having the boxes before him, how does the compositor 
work ? 

The copy or manuscript is laid before him ; he 
takes in his left hand the composing-stick, as it is 
called, which is a little iron tray large enough to hold 
about ten lines, the exact length of each line being 
regulated by a slide at the side. 
What is then done ? 

He sets the first type in the left hand corner of the 
" stick," face downward, the form of the letter being 
reversed, so that the impression may be correct ; the 
remaining letters follow very quickly, and at the end 
of each word a " space " is set. 

When the printer comes to the end of the line, does 
he leave it ? 

No ; he re-arranges the words and spaces so there 
shall be equal distances between them. Much skill 
is required to do this well and quickly. He then pro- 
ceeds in the same way with the remaining lines. 

When all are finished, zuhat follows ? 

The compositor slips off the type thus arranged 
upon a larger tray called a "galley." 

Is this easily done ? 

No ; great care is necessary that the pieces may not 
fall out of place, or as the printers call it, " be thrown 
into pi." 

When the "galleys" are filled, what is done? 

It is from these that the pages are formed. The 



PROCESS OF PRINTING EXPLAINED. IO5 

bottom of the first one is marked with " A " or " i " 
to indicate the first page — upon the 9th or 17th " B " 
or " 2 "' is stamped. This is done for the convenience 
of the binder, who can then more readily gather and 
fold the sheets. 

IV/ia^ is done with the pages when formed'? 

The type for each of them is bound with twine and 
then set in order for printing upon an iron or marble 
block, called the " imposing stone." 

Upon what do the form of the pages depend f 

They depend upon the size of the book to be made. 
These different sizes have received different names. 
When the sheet is folded so as to form four leaves, 
it is called a folio — if eight, a quarto — sixteen, an 
octavo-r-24, a duodecimo, etc. 

Were these terms always used! 

The names have not changed, but before the use of 
steam in printing, they indicated half the numbers 
which they now do. As 2 leaves for a folio, 4 for a 
quarto, etc. 

Are the pages arranged in the order for reading 
them. ? 

No ; they are placed so that only one side of a sheet 
shall be printed from them, and when folded 4, 8, or 
12 times, will then come in regular order. 

How can you show this ? 

By taking a double newspaper of 8 pages and 
spreading it out. On one side are the ist, 8th, 4th, 
and 5th pages, and on the other the 2d, 3d, 6th, and 
7th. 



I06 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

When the pages are properly arranged what is then 
done ? 

A " first proof " as it is called, that is, a copy is 
struck off by laying a sheet of blank paper on the 
types thus arranged, which is pressed down by a hand 
roller. 

Why is only one copy taken at first f 

This is the one to be examined by the proof-reader, 
who marks the errors by certain signs. The compos- 
itor then corrects them by changing the type. 

Are any other ''proofs " taken ? 

Yes ; after the first correction, more copies are 
struck off to be corrected by the author, or " proof- 
readers " again. 

What then follows ? 

The final corrections being made, the prepared 
pages of type are taken to the printing-press, which 
is worked by steam, and by means of this wonderful 
machine, 15,000 impressions of a newspaper are struck 
off in an hour. 

Is steam now used for all kinds of printing ? 

No ; a hand-press is employed in offices where very 
fine, nice work is to be done — or when but few copies 
of an article are required. 

When was steam first used for printing "^ 

On the 28th Nov., 18 14, the London Times issued 
the first sheet ever printed by steam. 



STEREOTYPE PRINTING. IO7 



CHAPTER IV: 



STEREOTYPE PRINTING. 



the required number of copies of a hook or 
newspaper are struck off, what is done with the type ? 

It is divided again among the different boxes from 
which it was taken. 

If more copies of the same book are required how are 
they obtained! 

The type must be set again as at first. 

Is there any other method ? 

Yes ; by an ingenious contrivance, additional im- 
pressions can be taken at any time. 

How was this done at first ? 

In the early part of the 1 8th century Van der May, 
of Leyden, in Holland, made the types, after they were 
set for printing, into a solid plate, by soldering the 
lower ends together. 

Did this answer the required purpose f 

Yes ; very well for the particular book or paper to 
be printed, but the type could not be used for other 
work. 



I08 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What was the next improvenierit ? 

William Ged of Edinburgh invented a method by 
which the work could be stereotyped, as it is called, 
and the same type used again for other purposes. 

Did he accomplish much by this invention ? 

He met with so much opposition from the type 
founders, or those who had made the type, as it of 
course lessened their business, that he was obliged to 
give up his plan after using it a short time. 

Was another attempt made f 

Nearly 70 years afterwards, Didot, a Frenchman, 
following up the idea of Ged, made the type of harder 
metal than usual, by the addition of copper. 

What was done with it ? 

The page being properly formed from this type, an 
impression of it was taken on a smooth sheet of soft 
lead : this could be put away for future use. 

Wei^e copies struck from this sJieet? 

No ; but impressions could be taken from it, upon 
a sheet of type metal, when the latter was so hot as 
to be soft, and from this copies could be struck off at 
any time, while the loose types from which the im- 
pression was taken in lead, could be ^^ set up'''' again 
for other books or papers. 

What can you say of this method of stereotyping f 

It answered the"^urpose very well, but a still better 
plan is now adopted called the paper process. 

Will you explain it ? 

The type is prepared as usual for one page. A 
sheet of paper is then laid upon the table and brushed 



STEREOTYPE PRINTING. IO9 

over with a solution of gum, a sheet of tissue paper is 
added, then more gum, and so on until a moulding 
sheet about ^^ of an inch in thickness is formed. 

What follows ? 

The "form " of type as the page is called, is laid 
upon an iron table and slightly oiled on the upper 
side. The moulding sheet is placed on this and beaten 
down with a stiff brush by which it receives an im- 
pression from the "form " 

Is the process now finished ? 

No; woollen cloths are thrown over it, and the 
whole put on a steam table, and under a "platen." 

What is a platen f 

This name is appHed by printers to the flat part of 
the press which is screwed down on the moulding 
sheet. 

After remaining under press for some time what is 
the resjilt? 

When taken out, a perfect impression of the type 
is found on the matrix or moulding sheet, which is as 
firm and pliable as bristol-board. 

What is then done with it ? 

The matrix, now stamped from the type, is placed 
in a mould made of iron covered very closely and then 
set on end ; a mixture of different metals being melted, 
is poured over the matrix through an opening at the 
top: 

Why is this done f 

As the metal cools a complete covering is thus 
formed, which receives a perfect impression from the 



lib PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Stamped sheet ; it is removed from the matrix as soon 
a,s possible, cooled still more and hardened in cold 
water. 

Wka^ is this sheet of metal called f 

It is called the stereotype plate. At least 200,000 
copies can be taken from it at any time when required. 

Does it require much time to prepare the stereotype 
plates ? 

Very little is necessary. The average time for 
stereotyping double sheet newspapers is 30 to 35 min- 
utes, although it can be done in 20 minutes. 

Is this method now adopted to any extent ? 

Yes ; nearly every book, and the most popular news- 
papers are stereotyped, or " cast " as it is called. 



SECTION VI. 



CHAPTER I. 

COTTON MANUFACTURERS. 

How is Cotton obtained f 

It is taken from a plant growing in warm countries 
in various parts of the world. 

Are there any varieties in the shrub? 

There are three principal kinds, viz. : the herba- 
ceous or annual, the shrub that lives two or three 
years, and the tree which lasts twenty years. 

Are these all cultivated in the United States ? 

No ; the annual is the only one raised here. 

In what part of the country is it found f 

It is principally cultivated in the extreme south, as 
the soil and climate seem better adapted to it. 

Has it ever been raised farther north f « 

Yes ; at first small portions of land from New Jer- 
sey to Georgia might be seen covered with cotton 
plants. Each family cultivated what was necessary 
for its own use. 



112 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Is there more than one kind of the annual plant ? 

Yes ; there are three varieties ; the Sea-island cot- 
ton, the medium, and the short staple. 
Which is the most valuable ? 

The Sea-island is the best, on account of the long, 
fine, silky threads drawn from it. 

Where is it raised? 

The greatest quantities are found around the islands 
south of the United States, and on the lands that 
border on the Gulf of Mexico. It is also raised on 
the Florida coast, as well as through the State. 

Is it all equally good ? 

No ; that upon the more elevated parts is inferior 
in quality and quantity. 

Is the Sea-island cotton produced in other parts of 
the world ? 

The soil and climate of the United States seem 
better adapted for this variety than any other country. 
For although in Egypt, the Isle of Bourbon and Per- 
nambuco, the best cottons are raised, yet even there the 
Sea-island does not equal ours in the length and fine- 
ness of the thread. 

How docs this variety compare in value with the 
Short Staple ? 

It is considered worth two, three and even four 
times as much as any other, being sometimes sold for 
$1.00 per pound. 

What kind is ranked next in value to the Sea- 
island ? 

The Egyptian and Brazilian, being used for fine 



COTTON MANUFACTURERS. II3 

fabrics. The " Medium Staple " produced here comes 
next, common yarn and coarse cloth being made from 
it. 

Which is the lowest in value ? 

That from India is the coarsest, not being white 
and clean. It is mixed with the American variety 
and used for the most common cloth. 

If there was enough Sea-island cotton, could zve dis- 
pense with the other varieties ? 

No ; each particular kind seems equally necessary 
for the different uses made of it. The medium-staple 
is raised in the greatest quantities, there being more 
general uses to which it can be applied. 

When does the planting of cotton-seed take place f 

In the United States, the ground is ploughed in 
February, and the seed planted from the 15 th of 
March to the ist of April, according to the latitude of 
the place. 

When the plants first appear what is done f 

The weakest and smallest are cut down, leaving the 
others in bunches. In a few days these are again 
thinned out, when only two stalks are left, and finally 
but one remains. 

What is done to the land during this time ? 

It is constantly broken up with hoes and ploughs. 

When does this plant begin to ripen ? 

In the month of July. The cotton is formed in 
pods ; when these burst open, the white downy lint 
appears. 



J 14 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Is the cotton all picked at once ? 

No ; at first but few of the pods are open, yet as 
soon as the cotton appears on any of the plants, the 
men, women, and children pass between the rows, 
gathering from each side as they go. 

Wke7t is the busiest time ? 

In September — then the fields are white as if cov- 
ered with snow. It is necessary to gather as quickly 
as possible, lest the rain may beat down and scatter 
the precious crop. 

How long does the picking season last f 

It usually continues from July until Christmas. 

What may be see?i during all this time ? 

Troops of men, women, and children passing between 
the rows, each wearing a bag around the neck to hold 
the cotton. When this is full it is emptied into bas- 
kets at the end of the rows. 

How often do the laborers go through tJie fields ? 

It is necessary to go over them five or six times, as 
the plants ripen so gradually. 

WJiat is done with the cotton when gathered ? 

Sometimes it is carried directly to the packing-house, 
but is generally spread on scaffolds to dry, and to 
be cleaned of any trash that may have fallen into it. 

How much can each person pick in a day ? 

A good laborer will gather from 250 to 300 pounds 
per day — although some are able to do even more. 

When the cotton has been dried, what is done with 
it ? 

It is taken to the packing-house, where it is ginned, 



\ 



COTTON MANUFACTURERS. ITS 

weighed, packed and delivered to the nearest railway 
station. 

Hoiv is it ginned? 

The seed is separated from the lint by a very won- 
derful machine invented by Mr. Whitney, an Ameri- 
can. 



I 



Il6 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER II. 

PROGRESS OF THE MANUFACTURE IN DIFFERENT 
COUNTRIES. 

How long has cotton been used as material for 
clothing ? 

This is not certainly known. But we find in the 
earliest records, mention made of it not only in the 
civilized parts of the world, but also among rude and 
savage people. 

Where was the cotton obtained that is used in the 
United States ? 

It is a native of Mexico, the people of that country 
made nearly all their clothing from that material, as 
they had neither hemp, wool, or silk. 

How did the Mexicans use the cotton ? 

They wove large webs as delicate as any now made, 
and embroidered upon them figures of animals and 
flowers, by means of furs and feathers. 

When Cortez invaded Mexico how did he dispose -of 
some of these garments ? 

They were considered so beautiful that he sent a 
few of the richest to King Charles V. of Spain. 



I 



PROGRESS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. tl/ 

Was the art of Manufacturing cotton then made 
known f 

No ; it seems to have been lost at the time, as the 
Spaniards were fighting with the Mexicans, but the 
plant was introduced into this country when our gov- 
ernment was formed. 

What can you say of the Cotton culture here ? 

It can be raised in such large quantities, and with 
so little expense, that we are able to furnish it to the 
Europeans much cheaper than they can obtain it else- 
where. 

How has the crop increased f 

In 1800 there were raised in the United States, 
9,532,263 lbs. of cotton, which, when manufactured, 
sold for 48 cts. per yd. In 1859, the crop amounted 
to 2,162,000,000 lbs. at 6 cts. per yd., since then 
there has been a constant increase in the business. 

To what has this rapid progress been owing ? 

It results chiefly from the wonderful inventions 
that have been made, not only in manufacturing the 
goods, but in preparing the raw material for use. 

Have machines always been employed ? 

By no means. Although cotton goods have been 
manufactured in India from the earliest ages, yet the 
work was almost entirely done by hand, the few ma- 
chines being very rude and imperfect. 

What can you say of the cloth produced there ? 

It is more delicate than any other, being so fine 
that when laid on the grass and covered with dew it 
cannot be seen. 



Il8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Is it easily done? 

No ; the process is very slow and tedious ; four 
months are required to make one piece, which is then 
worth 500 Rupees or about ^250. 

Is this peculiar ki7id of cloth made in all parts of India? 

No ; each district produces a different web. Long 
training, and much patience are necessary to under- 
stand the business. 

In what other countries was cotton inanufactnred? 

In the 1 1th century it passed from India to China, 
and afterwards over to Europe, although it did not 
make much progress until the 17th century. 

Did the ancient Egyptians understand the art ? 

It was supposed for a long time that they did, 
as the mummy cloths were believed to have been made 
of cotton, but on close examination of the threads, 
they are found to be of flax. 

What is the difference betiveen a thread of cotton ana 
one of flax ? 

The former is flat and twisted, while the latter is 
round and jointed. 

Did the manufacture of cotton make much progress 
in Great Britain ? 

No ; very little. This was owing to want of mate- 
rial and good machines. 

When did a change for the better take place f 

About the time of the Revolutionary War. Many 
inventions and improvements were then made, by 
which more and better goods were produced with far 
less time and labor. 



PROGRESS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. Itg 

Will you mention the differejtt steps in the process of 
manufacture f 

After gathering the cotton, it passes through the 
" Gin," a machine which separates the lint from the 
seed. It is then cleaned, carded, spun, wove, dyed 
and printed. 

Why is it necessary to card the cotton f 

That it may be drawn out into straight threads, to 
be spun and woven. 

How was this formerly donef 

Two flat " cards," resembling curry-combs, were 
held in the hand, the cotton being carefully combed 
through them as straight as possible — the roll that 
came out was called a " Sliver',' which was twisted on 
a wheel near by into a thick thread, like candlewick ; 
this was the " roving'' 

What was then done with it f 

The roving being again twisted, was spun into a 
single thread, and in this way all the cotton yarn of 
the country was slowly made by females at their own 
homes. 

How was the weaving done ? 

The simple looms used were worked also by hand. 

When did a change for the better first take placet 

In I 'j6j, when James Hargreaves used a wheel that 
would drive eight spindles at once, the " rovings " 
being drawn through a clasp held in the left hand. 

What followed ? 

Two years later Mr. Arkwright added rollers or 
drawing frames, which was a great improvement. 



120 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Explain in what way. 

The " roving " on its way, passed between two roll- 
ers, and from these to another pair, moving twice as 
fast as the first. 

WJiat was the result f 

The rolls of cotton were drawn out to twice their 
former length and half the thickness. This was done 
in a shorter time and much more evenly than before. 

What name did Mr. ArkwrigJU give his machine f 

He called it his " Spinning-Jenny " — being named, 
as some say, from his wife, Jennie Arkwright. 

What improvement followed ? 

In 1784 Mr. Crompton produced a third machine, 
using the plan found in the previous ones. Before 
this the spindles could not be moved. Now they 
were fixed upon a frame which would run out 56 in- 
ches, stretch and twist the thread, and returning wind 
it upon the spindles, making it much finer, stronger 
and more even than before. 

How many spindles could be used on this machine ? 

It would carry 130, and when water-power was ap- 
plied, 400. Now the machine is self-acting, 300 is the 
usual number. 

What can you say of the improvements in the re- 
maining steps of the business. 

They are all as great as these. The rudest ma- 
chines at first used, have given place to the beautiful, 
swift, noiseless ones now found throughout our coun- 
try. 



METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 



CHAPTER III. 

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 

What has been one great cause of the improvements 
in manufacturing goods f 

The use of steam, where water power could not be 
obtained; and even where the latter may be had, some 
think the former better and cheaper. 

We have already described the growth, picking and 
packing of cotton ; will you now tell me the next step in 
the process f 

When the bales are brought to the mill, the con- 
tents of one is spread out upon the floor, upon this 
another is scattered, and so on until a huge pile called 
a " bing^' is raised. 

What is then done f 

A rake is used to scrape down the sides, thus 
thoroughly mixing all together, as the qualities in each 
bale of the same staple being different, should be 
combined. 

What do you mean by " staple f " 

As we have already said, the term is applied to the 
three different kinds of cotten raised, viz. : long, me- 



122 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

dium, and short staple, according to the length of the 
natural fibre. 

For what is tks " long staple" required? 

It is used for the threads that run lengthwise of 
the cloth, as no other kind will answer the purpose. 

Of what are the cross threads made ? 

The " medium staple " answers for this, which is 
called the " weft," the other being the warp. It is 
softer and more silky than the long staple and fills up 
better. 

What use is made of the short staple f 

It is sometimes taken for the " weft," but it is not 
so smooth as the other kinds, being more like wool ; if 
much of it is used, the cloth becomes thin and flimsy 
after washing and bleaching, so that it is better to 
mix a little with the " medium." 

When the cotton is mixed is it perfectly clean ? 

No, very far from being so ; therefore it is necessary 
to cleanse it. 

How is this done ? 

Various machines are used, the best seems to be 
the one called " the Willey." 

How does it work ? 

There are two large iron wheels, each having four 
stout teeth ; these are placed face to face so that the 
teeth will clash against each other. The cotton pass- 
ing between them, when the machine is in motion, is 
torn apart. 

What becomes of the impurities ? 

A revolving fan attached to the machine, blows the 



METttOt) OF MANUFACTURE 1 23 

dirt through a tube attached to it, leaving the cotton 
white and fleecy. 

How fast do these wheels revolve f 

About 1600 times in a minute. 

What becomes of the cotton ? 

It passes out of the " Willey " into a second ma- 
chine, called the "spreader," where it is acted upon 
by blunt knives that clean it still more. 

How does it then look ? 

As it comes from this machine it is in the form of a 
thin sheet ; being wound upon a roller it is necessary 
to have this sheet very even ; if there are thin and 
thick places, they will afterwards appear in the 
cloth. 

What is done with these sheets f 

They are now carded, that is, combed out; the cotton 
being straightened into a delicate fleece. It is then 
drawn through a funnel, coming out in long close 
rolls, looking like a stream of cream as they pass into 
tin cans prepared for them. 

Is this carding repeated ? 

For very fine yarn, finer cards are afterwards used. 

What folloivs ? 

The work has thus far been done by males; 
females now continue it, carrying the " slivers,^' as the 
rolls are called, through the " drawing " process. 

How is this done ? 

By means of rollers ; the slivers coming from the 
tin cans being taken by one roller, and passing over 
to another the rolls are drawn out into thread. The end 



124 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

of one "sliver " being laid upon the middle of another 
makes them even ; this is called " doubling," or 
drawing in and out. 

How often is it repeated f 

The more the better — sometimes the doubHng is 
done 32,000 times for one thread. 

Is it then veiy firm f 

No ; when, it comes from the drawing frame it is 
very thin and delicate, and must be twisted once or 
twice, when it is ready for spinning, which is done 
by spindles that wind the yarn at the same time 
upon spools called " bobbins.''^ 

What is done with the bobbins f 

When full, they are set in a frame so that the thread 
can be wound off upon a large six-sided reel. 

What is the size of it ? 

The reel is 1^ yds. in circumference ; by revolving 
560 times, one "hank" of yarn is wound; this is 
then tied, other " hanks " are added, and when taken 
off and weighed the number or quality of the yarn is 
known. 

Explain this'? 

A hank of the coarsest yarn weighs half a pound ; 
the common quality gives from 10 to 40 hanks in a 
pound. The finest runs up to 300 hanks per. pound, 
although at the World's Fair in London, some was ex- 
bited giving 600 hanks to the pound. A dress for 
the Queen was made of 460 thread. 

Hozv does this compare with the delicate India fabrics ? 

It far exceeds them ; one specimen of spinning pro- 



METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 1 25 

duced a thread 1,026 miles in length from a pound of 
cotton. 

What are often attached to the spimiing machines ? 

Clocks are sometimes placed there, so arranged as 
to mark the quantity of work done in a week ; this 
is registered upon a board hung up in sight of all the 
operatives ; the monthly wages are paid according to 
the amount of work credited to each one. 

Is the yarn ready for weaving as soon as it is spun ? 

That for the filling or cross threads can be used ; but 
the warp or long threads must be " dressed " first, 
that is, a kind of sizing is applied making the yarn 
stiff and smooth, when it is taken to the weaving-room. 

How many machines are fotmd here ? 

Sometimes 600 looms, attended by 150 girls. 

What is done with the cloth after weaving? 

It is taken to another room to be trimmed, meas- 
ured, folded, marked, and made into bales for the 
market, or sent to the Print shops to be made into 
calico. 



126 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GREATER IMPROVEMENTS. 

Where were the first mills in the U.S. erected for the 
manufacture of cotton ? 

At Pawtucket ; the first factory was built by Samuel 
Slater and two other gentlemen, where every variety 
of spinning was done. 

What machines were used? 

The machines were brought from England, and 
proved to be so excellent that they were constantly 
used for forty years. 

What has become of the factory erected by Mr. Slater f 

A few years ago it was still standing. Then there 
could be seen two of the spinning frames used in 1789, 
being kept as curiosities. 

Were the E7iglish willing other nations should use 
their machines '? 

No ; a law was passed forbidding any wool 6r 
machines to be exported ; this was in force until 1828. 

What caused it to be withdrawn ? 

They found the Americans were becoming even 
more ingenious than themselves, and so thought it 



GREATER IMPROVEMENTS. \2J 

would be for their own advantage to be more liberal 
and friendly. 

If suck was the case, how did Mr. Slater obtain his 
machines f 

Although he was so closely watched by the English," 
that he could not even smuggle so much as a drawing 
or pattern of a machine, yet as he had gained a thor- 
ough knowledge of the spinning business before leav- 
ing England, he made good use of it now. 

Explain in what way. 

With his own hands, and by great ingenuity, he 
made three cards, and twenty-two spindles, which was 
the beginning of the great manufacturing business in 
this country. 

What results have followed this first attempt ? 

Our rivers and water-falls propel thousands of mill- 
wheels, and millions of shuttles and spindles, giving 
constant employment and an honorable support to a 
vast number of persons. 

Was cloth also manufactured in Mr, Slaters mill? 

No ; his machines were only for the spinning of 
yarn or thread to be afterwards knit or woven into cloth. 

How had the weaving been done before l8l2 f 

The looms were worked altogether by hand, as per- 
sons even now weave rag-carpets. 
Were any improvements M,ade ? 

Yes ; although the war of 1812 prevented all inter- 
course with Great Britain, which seemed to check the 
progress of manufacturers, yet the result proved other- 
wise. 



128 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

How coidd this be f 

As we have before said regarding spinning ma- 
chines, it was impossible to obtain a drawing or model 
■ from England ; the case was similar as to looms, but 
the very difficulty brought its own remedy. 

In what way ? 

Just as the war was about to break out, Mr. Francis 
C. Lowell returned from Europe, where he had gained 
much knowledge of the manufacturing business,hoping 
to make many changes for the better in this country. 

Did he succeed f 

After many difficulties he accomplished the work. 

How was it done ? 

By the aid of his memory and skill alone ; in con- 
nection with Mr. Jackson, a power-loom was invented, 
that is, one that would run by water-power. 

Was it a perfect machine ? 

By no means ; many defects were afterwards found 
in it, yet it was so far a success, that the inventors 
decided to erect a mill for weaving cotton cloth. 

Was any thing besides weaving done here ? 

This was the only intention at first, but as it was 
found to be cheaper to make their own yarn than to 
buy it, the owners decided to include in their estab- 
lishment a mill for spinning. 

How ma?iy spindles were iisedf 

The mill, when finished in 1813, contained 1760 
spindles. 

Where was it built ? 

At Waltham, Mass., where it is still in operation. 



GREATER IMPROVEMENTS. t2g 

What was there remarkable abotit it ? 

At the time of its erection, it was the only one in 
the world Vf^QYo, all the operations took place of con- 
verting the raw cotton into finished cloth. 

With all the success thus gained what difficulty pre- 
sented itself? 

It was not an easy matter to obtain operatives. 

Why was this so f 

In England the people are so graded that there is 
always a poorer class where such operatives are 
easily found ; but in America, we being " all free and 
equal," there is of course no such distinction here. 

How was the difficulty remedied ? 

Boarding-houses were erected for the use of the 
factory people alone. Persons of excellent char- 
acter were placed at the head of them to keep order, and 
to see that all the inmates were respectable and well 
behaved. 

What resulted from this plan ? 

Parents were not afraid to place their daughters in 
these establishments. In a few years they had ac- 
quired money sufficient for a marriage portion, or to 
support themselves without labor, and when they left 
the mill, there were always enough to fill their 
places. 

What resulted from the success of the first mill f 

Others were soon established elsewhere. 

Which were the principal of these ? 

That at Lowell, Mass. 

To what was its success chiefly owing f 
9 



130 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

At the time of the war of 1812 considerable cotton 
had accumulated at the South making it very cheap. 
Commerce was also interrupted, so that the people 
turned their attention more to manufacturing than 
any thing else. 

Did each factory in the country perform all the op- 
erations for making cloth ? 

No ; this was chiefly the case in the N. E. mills, 
those in the Middle States being principally for 
spinning. 

What progress did the Lowell mills make ift their 
business ? 

In 1 83 1, ten years after beginning, 530,461,990 
yds. of cloth were made, or about twenty yards for 
each person in the country. 

In which State is the business carried on most exten- 
sively ? 

In Mass., where it commenced. The money there 
invested is about one third of all the capital thus used 
in the U. S. The products are nearly in the same pro- 
portion. 



CALICO PRINTING. I3I 



CHAPTER V. 

CALICO PRINTING. 

How is cotton bleached / 

Formerly, six or eight months were required for the 
cloth to steep in strong lye, and then bleach upon 
the grass. 

What is the method now f 

A bleaching powder composed of lime, salt, sul- 
phuric acid, and manganese is used that will change 
the rough, dirty cloth as it comes from the weaver 
into the smooth, white fabric called bleached cottouv 

Is any thing done to the cloth before bleaching ? 

Yes ; as it comes from the factory it is often soiled 
and greasy, so that it must be thoroughly cleansed. 

How is this done ? 

The cloth is put into tubs, large enough to hold 5&0 
pieces, where it is steeped for some hours in warm 
water, then washed in the dash-wheel. 

What is the dash-wheel f 

It is a machine similar to the one used in private 
families for washing, of course being much larger. 



132 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Whatfolloivs f 

The cloth is boiled in a preparation of lime-water, 
washed again as before, boiled in alkali, washed once 
more, steeped in bleaching-powder some hours, then 
in oil of vitriol and water, washed for the last time in 
the dash-wheel, squeezed between rollers, mangled 
and dried in the air or in warm rooms. 

Why is it necessary to go through all this process ? 

Because if the cloth is not perfectly clear and white, 
it will be impossible to have a good and brilliant color 
formed, with a distinct ground. 

Hotv long a time is required for this process f 

Only a few hours. 

Why is Calico so called? 

The name is said to be derived from Calicut, a town 
on the Malabar coast, whence it was first imported. 

How is the term used ? 

In England, the white, unprinted cloth is called 
calico, but with us the term is adapted to pieces of 
cotton stamped with various colored figures. 

Hoiu long has stamped cloth been tised f 

Probably for many centuries ; Homer and Herodo- 
tus both mention the rich, linen goods ornamented 
with figures of birds, etc., dyed in fast colors. 

When did these zvidters live ? 

They were both Greeks ; Homer, the poet, lived 
915 B.C., and Herodotus, the historian, 445 B.C. 

Does any other author give similar accounts ? 

Yes ; Pliny, a famous Roman author, relates the 
method used by the Egyptians in coloring their cloth. 



CALICO PRINTING. 133 

Will you explain it f 

He says the Egyptians take white cloth, and having 
drawn the figures they wish, apply certain kinds of 
drugs to these places. 

Does the colored pattern theit appear ? 

No ; the cloth still looks perfectly white. But hav- 
ing been put in a kettle of some coloring liquid, scald- 
ing hot, the figures appear very brilliant and beautiful, 
and the very colors themselves are perfectly "fast." 

What is the strangest part of the process ? 

The most wonderful thing connected with it is, that 
one simple coloring liquid should bring out so many 
different shades at the same time. 

Can yon metition any other nations that tmderstand 
the art of printing calico ? 

In India, much skill is shown by the natives who 
practice the art. The Chinese also produce a kind 
of chintz counter-pane, with the strange figures so 
peculiar to them. 

How is it done ? 

The pattern being drawn is covered with wax, and 
the parts not thus protected will be colored whenr 
dipped in the dye-kettle. 

What progress did the art make ? 

It proceeded very slowly ; although introduced from 
India into England it was not until some time in the 
17th century that the business began to flourish. 

In what city ? 

In Augsburg, Bavaria, where the printed cotton and 
linen goods were quite famous. 



1.34 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

In what other countries did it then find its way ? 

Into France, Germany, Switzerland and Great 
Britain. It first appeared in London in 1676. 

Did it progress rapidly in London f 

No, very slowly ; meeting with great opposition 
from the silk and woollen weaver, whose trade was 
injured by it. 

What law was passed to prevent the sale of 
calico f 

In 1720 a law was passed, forbidding anyone to 
wear it under a penalty of ;^5, the seller being fined 

How long did this continue f 

It was not until 1831 that the heavy fines and taxes 
were removed. Since then the business has been 
very flourishing. 

How was calico printed at first f 

It was done by means of wooden blocks ; one 
of a few inches square was pressed upon the cloth by 
hand, leaving a single color. As other figures and col- 
ors were of course required for the pattern, a separate 
block was used for each one. 

What can you say of this process f 

It was very slow and tedious. 

What improvement was soon made in this method? 

"Immense machines were invented, in which the 
blocks were so arranged that 15 or 20 colors could be 
printed at once, and so rapidly that 600 or 700 times 
as many pieces were produced as before in a single 
day, at the rate of a mile an hour. 



CALICO PRINTING. 135 

Af£ the patterns drawii by the calico pvinter ? 

No ; this is a separate part of the business, and id 
done by artists called designers. 

Bxplam how they form the patterns f 

It depends almost entirely upon their own skill and 
ingenuity. They are first taught in " Schools of 
Design." 

How are the lessons given f 

The pupil is first required to make straight and 
curved lines readily and accurately ; then to form as 
many different figures as possible out of a certain 
number of straight or curved lines, afterwards to use 
both at once. 

What is the next step f 

After succeeding well in that part of the instruc- 
tion, he is required to apply colors to these various 
figures in as many ways as possible. The pupil is 
now ready to be a designer himself. 

Is it a profitable business f 

Yes, for a skillful artist. Manufacturers often pay 
$4000 per year for patterns. 

Where are the most skillful designers found f 

The French have thus far produced the most beau^ 
tiful patterns. The best artists, however, are those 
who can have great variety as well as beauty in their 
designs. 

Why is this necessary ? 

Because the taste of persons differ so much. A 
rude Indian is more pleased with large, showy figures 



136 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

than with small, delicate ones. Besides, our taste is 
such that we always require something new. 

If cotton cloth is to be printed, what is necessary f 

It must be "calendered,"''' as it is called. 

What is meant by that term ? 

Cloth to be " calendered " must pass between heated 
iron cylinders that are constantly turning ; but before 
this the cotton must be " singedJ' 

Explain tJie process f 

The cloth is drawn quickly over a gas pipe having 
many little openings ; the long line of flame singes 
the loose threads and soft down. Another pipe above, 
exhausted of air, draws the flame through the goods. 

Does it not burn the cloth ? 

No ; as it moves very quickly, about three feet in a 
second, the loose threads are only burned ; the cloth, 
however, turns yellow, but it can be bleached in a few 
hours. 

When this process is finished what follows ? 

The cloth is now ready to be printed, which^ as we 
have said, was formerly done by blocks ; they are also 
used now to some extent. 

What other method is adopted f 

Copper cylinders are used upon which the pattern 
is cut. There is one for each color to be applied. 

How is the cylinder worked f • 

By means of machinery it continually revolves, leav- 
ing the impression of the colored figure required, 
then other cylinders follow with whatever color is to 
be used ; in this way the printing is quickly done. 



CALICO PRINTING. 1 3/ 

What is necessary in regard to the colors used ? 

Great care is taken that they are not too thin or too 
thick, so they may not spread or run into each other. 

Hozv is the color pttt tcpon the roller ? 

There is another cylinder below the one on which 
the pattern is engraved, this dips into a trough while 
revolving, taking as much of the dye as is necessary, 
which it rubs upon the upper roller, both turning to- 
gether. 

Will it not cover the zvhole of the roller f 

Yes, it might, but there is a sharp blade of steel 
scraping all the time against the upper cylinder, which 
takes off all the color, except that in the parts cut out 
for the pattern. 

What may be said of this machine ? 

It is certainly one of the most wonderful ever in- 
vented. 

Is the color formed by each roller, the one that will 
appear when the cloth is fifiished ? 

No ; that is merely the " sightening," as it is called, 
or a color by which the workman may judge of the 
correctness of the work thus far : this color is tempo- 
rarily given by the mordant. 
What is the " mordant ? " 

It is the peculiar substance which, being applied 
to the cotton on the printed figure, will dye it there, 
but nowhere else, although the whole piece of cloth 
may afterwards be dipped in the dye-kettle. The 
word is from the Latin " mordere," " to bite," as the 
color seems to bite, or fix itself in the cloth. 



138 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What are the " mordants " generally used? 

Alum and copperas ; each of which is first changed 
to "iron-liquor," as it is called, by taking away the oil 
of vitriol from both, and substituting vinegar instead. 

How are the different colors for dyeing prepared? 

By adding madder to the iron-liquor, black and pur- 
ple can be obtained, alum will dye red of different 
shades, and by using the two dyes chocolate appears. 

By applying these differe^it " mordants " to the calico 
what follows ? 

Although sixteen pieces may be put in the same 
coloring vat at once, yet each will come out with its 
own peculiar shade, according to the mordant used. 
It was probably on this principle that the ancients, to 
whom we have referred, produced their colored fab- 
rics. 

Can the cloth be put into the dye-kettles as soon as 
the " mordant " is applied ? 

No ; two or three weeks are required for it to be- 
come " fixed " sufficiently, if left untouched, but by 
the use of different substances the color can be "set" 
in two or three days when it is dyed. It is then 
rinsed, washed at the dash-wheel, passed through hot 
bran water, two or three times, and last through soda 
and water, when being again washed, is dried and 
ready to be folded. 

What is done with the calico as soon as printed? 

It is at once drawn over rollers in a room heated to 
200'', that it may be thoroughly dried and the colors 
made " fast." 



SECTION VII. 



CHAPTER I. 

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. 

Has wool been used for a long time in making 
cloth ? 

Yes ; it was probably the first material applied to 
such a purpose. 

Why do we think so ? 

The history of nations confirms the belief, and 
as the first clothing was merely the skins of wild 
beasts, it was natural to suppose the hair and fur of 
animals would be the first material used for the pur- 
pose. 

How was the cloth made for a long thne f 

As all the machines were very rude and simple, 
being worked by hand, the process was very slow and 
tedious. 

Were improvements made ? 

Yes ; by degrees. All that we have said regarding the 
progress of cotton manufactures will apply to woollen ; 

O39) 



140 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

the machines used, and the method followed, being 
also similar. 

When the yarn is spun, what is done with it ? 

It is wound like the cotton upon a reel, which 
however is only a yard in circumference. When this 
has revolved 80 times it rings a bell and is then 
stopped when the "ley," as it is called, is tied and the 
reel revolves as before. 

Hoiv many " leys'' make a hank ? 

Seven, equal to 560 yds. Each hank being weighed, 
as is done with cotton, will give the number of the yarn. 
"No. 24" means that 24 hanks make a pound of that 
quality. 

Are any materials except ivool used in the manu- 
facture of woollen goods ? 

Yes ; in nearly all kinds of cloth ; for in the best, 
as cassimeres, broadcloths, etc., though the warp and 
woof are partly of wool, yet cotton and other materials 
are often combined with it. 

After the cloth is woven what is done with it ? 

The pieces are taken to a mill to be " fulled," that 
is, scoured, cleansed and shrunk so as to be more firm 
and durable. 

How much time is required to " fuW a piece of 
cloth ? 

For broadcloth usually from 60 to 65 hours are 
necessary — about 11 lbs. of soap being used. In 
this process it will shrink in length from 54 to 40 
yds., and in width from 12 to 7 quarters, or from 3 
yds. to i|. 



WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. I4I 

IV/im "fulled^'' what is done with the cloth f 

It is stretched on tenter-frames to dry in the open 
air, any defects then found are remedied. 

How is the " nap " formed ? 

This is a dehcate operation, lest the cloth should 
be injured. Sometimes it is done by scratching the 
goods with " combs '* or teasing cards made of wire, 
or with the teasle plant* 
What is this plant ? 

It belongs to the thistle class, producing burrs with 
very sharp, stiff points. 

Is there any other method f 

Yes ; in large mills, the " gig^machine " is used, 
which is a cylinder covered with teasles, and made to 
revolve very rapidly as the cloth passes over it. 

How are the goods colored f 

For those to be printed, as in De Laines, the pro- 
cess is the same as described for calicoes, the mordant 
colored threads are dyed before weaving. 

How are they used to form, the pattern f 

Each color for its particular part of the figure is 
woven so as to appear on the surface, the others are 
only seen on the under side, in that place, but are 
brought out in turn when required. 

Has the progress of woollen manufactures been as 
great in this country as that of other goods ? 

The improvements are equally great, but in the 
quantity of goods produced, cotton takes the lead. 

How in regard to the quality of wool f 

Within the past few years, farmers have turned 



142 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

their attention so much to the raising of sheep, secur 
Jng the finest breeds, that the wool brought to the 
market equals, if not excels, that of any other country. 

Does the supply equal the demand f 

No ; it has been found necessary to import at 
least one-third of all that is used here. 

What is the quality of that imported ? 

It is usually of a coarser description, intended for 
carpets, etc. That from S. America is very fine, but 
so filled with the burr of a plant peculiar to the coun 
try as to make it of little value. 



i 



143 



CHAPTER IL 



Have carpets always beett tised f 

In Egypt and the Asiatic countries, the art of mak- 
ing very beautiful carpets has long been known, but it 
was some time before the Europeans used them. 

What were substituted ? 

Rushes, hay, straw, etc. ; even in the time of Queen 
Mary, rushes were strewn on the floor of her presence 
chamber. 

Are carpets now used as much in Europe as in Amer' 
ica f 

No ; the people of our own country seem to have a 
special fancy for them, every hall and room in their 
houses, the floors of the poorest churches, and even the 
counting-rooms of the merchants must be carpeted, 
> How is it in other countries f 

They are wanting in a thousand places where we 
use them, and as we do not manufacture enough for 
home consumption, at least 2,000,000 yds. are im- 
ported yearly. 



144 tRACTJcAL SCIENCE. 

. What varieties can you mention ? 

The most common, made in families, is the rag- 
carpet ; then follow ingrain, three-ply, Venetian, tapes- 
tries, Brussels, velvet and Wilton. 

Are there any others ? 

These are the only kind manufactured in our own 
country, but Turkey, Persian and Axminster are also 
used. 

How is the ingrain variety made f 

There are two distinct webs, having two sets 
of woollen weft, and two of worsted warp. 

How are these webs united f 

The warp threads pass from one to the other so as 
to bring the required colors to the surface, two only 
being generally used in this kind. 

How docs the " three-ply " differ'? 

There are three webs, making the carpet thicker ; 
more colors can also be used. 

What can you say of Brussels and tapestry carpets ? 

At first it was thought impossible to weave them 
except by hand ; however, the work can now be done 
by power looms. 

What advantage has resulted? 

Before this improvement, only 4 yards could be 
made in a day, now 20 yds. are produced in the same 
time of much better quality, so as to surpass those of 
any other country. 

To whom are we indebted for the use of the power 
loom ? 

This is the work of Mr. Bigelow, of Lowell, Mass., 



CARPETS. 145 

who has brought the business to its present state of 
perfection. 

W/ijy are Brussels carpets so called f 

They were named from the capital of Belgium, 
being first made there, and then introduced into Eng- 
land in the last century. 

How is Brussels carpeting made ? 

There are usually five or more colors in the thread, 
woven upon a ground of heavy linen weft. 

How do the colors run ? 

Usually the length of the web, and are so man- 
aged that all those required for the pattern are brought 
up together across the line of the carpet. 

Before they are drawn down what is done ? 

A wooden instrument, called a " sword," is passed 
through to hold up the threads, this is replaced by a 
wound wire, which being removed, leaves an even row 
of loops, as can be easily seen on a piece of the car- 
pet. 

What causes it to be so thick ? 

As one color only appears in its place on the sur- 
face, all the rest remain beneath, making it very heavy. 

How does the Wilton carpet differ from the Brussels f 

The loops are cut before the wire is removed ; 
there is a groove in the wire to receive the edge of 
the knife, that the cutting may be perfectly even. 
This is what gives the carpet its velvety appearance. 

How are tapestry carpets made ? 

They are two-ply, the colors for the figures being 
printed on the yarn before weaving. 



146 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

When the yarn for the carpets leaves the spinning 
jacks, how does it look ? 

It is very coarse, tightly rolled on large spools, from 
these it is wound into skeins and ready for the dye- 
house. 

What is done there ? 

Some of the skeins to be used for warp, are dyed 
so as to have half-a-dozen different colors in each one, 
this is done by a peculiar way of folding and tying the 
yarn. The other bundles are dyed according to the 
various colors required. 

What is done with tJiein then ? 

They are thoroughly dried in rooms directly over 
the engine boilers, and wound upon spools and bob- 
bins, by winding machines, worked by girls. 

What then follows f 

The thread is immediately wound upon immense 
cylinders; each filling of the roller makes but one 
thread in the warp of a single pattern, so that if there 
are 208 threads in the width of a single piece of car- 
pet, the roller must be filled as many times, and also 
carefully printed. 

How is the yarn printed f 

Under the cylinder there is another roller, which 
lays on each shade, in straight lines passing across, so 
that when all are printed there are sometimes 100 or 
more shades of colors. 

What is done then ? 

The skeins are carefully packed in boxes contain- 
ing rice-chaff ; a little rail-road car, takes them to the 



TARPETS. 147 

boiler, where they are subjected to the pressure of 
steam. The colors are then fixed, according to the 
process already described, and the yarn is ready for the 
weaver. After that the carpet is rolled very smooth 
by machines, marked, labelled and ready for sale. 



« 



148 PRACTICAJ. SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER III. 

SHODDY. 

Within a few years we have heard much of a kind 
of cloth called shoddy : what is it ? 

Although generally regarded as worthless, yet it is 
applied to many useful purposes, and when sold un- 
der its real name is worth the price paid for it. 

Is it ever passed off in the market for any thing else ? 

Yes ; as it can be made to resemble good cloth, 
Shoddy is frequently sold for a prime article. 
Where was it first made f 

As the Americans are said to cheat a little now and 
then in trade, we would suppose shoddy must have 
originated here, but such is not the case.; we are in- 
debted to the English for the invention, although we 
have six or more factories for making the article. 

In what part of England did the busi7tess com- 
mence ? 

At the little village of Dewsbury, in Yorkshire, 
which has now become a flourishing town of some 
30,000 inhabitants ; the rapid increase within the past 
twenty years is owing to this business alone. 



SHODDY. 149 

Wkat can you say of the warehouses erected for the 
purpose ? 

They are immense stone buildings, and on entering 
the principal one, there are seen hundreds of bales of 
cast-off clothing, collected from various parts of 
Europe. 

How are these obtained'? 

Agents are constantly travelling round, either buy- 
ing or begging old clothes, from the rich and poor, 
the noblemen as well as the peasant ; as far as possi- 
ble all are of woollen. 

What is done with these garments ? 

Dewsbury seems to be the head-quarters for the 
sale of them to the manufacturers in other parts of 
the kingdom, who constantly apply for the article. 

When the agents bring in their collections to the 
warehouse what is do7ie with them ? 

They are carefully assorted into, " shawls," " car- 
pets," " black cloth," " stockings," " linseys," etc., etc., 
and then offered to the highest bidder. 

What prices are often paid for thetn ? 

White flannel will often bring ^100 a ton, old 
stockings from ^35 to ^50, black cloth from ;^ioo to 
^150, and coarse mixed goods from ;^i5 to ^25 per 
ton. 

When taken to the manufacturer what is done with 
the goods ? 

They are very carefully assorted, so that the woollen 
shall be separated from the cotton or other materials, 
when it is passed into the rag machine. 



150 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What is done with it there ? 

By means of a cylinder, armed with steel teeth half 
an inch apart, the rags are torn into wool, which can 
be spun and woven like the ordinary article. 

What is " mungo " .^ 

It is a better kind of cloth made from that which 
is of a superior quality, greater care is taken also to 
have the wool finer and more fleecy before spinning. 

Is the wool there made into cloth ? 

No ; it is usually packed away for sale at the mar- 
ket, where it is readily bought. The " mungo " often 
brings 8 pence English, per pound, and the shoddy 
from one to sixpence ; a penny being equal to about 
two cents. 

What has been done to remove the roughness ef the 
"shoddy,'' as the wool itself is called in Yorkshire ? 

At first oil was used, but for some time milk has 
been substituted, answering the purpose very well. 

What change in the price of milk? 

It is sold for twice as much as before. 

What kind of cloth is made out of the shoddy ? 

The white is used for light colored goods, the dark 
for carpets, coarse cloths, which are dyed any dark 
color to hide the various shades formed by the differ- 
ent fabrics of which it is made ; new wool is sometimes 
added to improve the quality. 

How can shoddy be soon told from any other kind of 
cloth ? 

After wearing a short time, the wool will rub out, 
fall off, and the rest becomes useless. 



SHODDY. 151 

Is there any advantage in making shoddy ? 

It can be sold much cheaper than any other kind of 
cloth, besides that which would otherwise be useless, 
can be turned to some account. Much deception is 
however liable to be practiced in the business. 



SECTION VIII. 



CHAPTER I. 

SILK. EARLY HISTORY, 

Wheji and by whom, was silk probably first used? 

It is supposed that the Chinese were the first to 
engage in the manufacture of it, but when they began 
doing so is unknown. 

At what time did it appear ijt other cotmtries f 

The silk, already woven, was brought from Persia 
to Greece 325 B. C, and later to Rome; even in the 
time of the emperor Tiberius, 300 years afterwards it 
was considered a criminal act of extravagance, espe- 
cially for men, to wear silk. 

When was the first silk garm.ent worn in Rome ? 

In A. D. 229 by Heliogabalus. Silk was at first 
valued the same as gold, weight for weight. 

When were the first silk-worms brought to Europe? 

In the 6th century; some say the eggs were car 
ried from China to Constantinople by a monk in the 



SILK.— EARLY HISTORY. 1 53 

hollow part of his cane, as the law strictly forbade 
any eggs or worms to be taken from China, under 
penalty of death. 

W/iat progress was made in the manufacture of the 
at tide? 

At first very little ; for it was not until the time of 
Francis I., about 1510, that it was introduced into 
Italy, Spain and the south of France. In 1688 some 
French refugees brought the business to perfection 
in England, at Spitalsfields, where a very flourishing 
trade is now carried on. 

From what is silk obtained? 

It is taken from the cocoons of the caterpillar, of 
the mulberry tree moth ; some varieties are also made 
from the cocoons of other insects. 

Catt you mention any of them ? 

The thread produced by the Saturina Cynthia, are 
woven and spun into white cloth, which though of a 
loose texture, is yet so durable as to be scarcely worn 
out in the lifetime of a single person. 

Has the spider ^s web ever been used ? 

Attempts were made to weave it, but the quantity 
made by the spiders is so small, and the difficulty 
of rearing them so great, as they are very quarrel- 
some, that, like some persons, more time is spent in 
fighting and blood-shed than in useful labor, therefore 
the attempt has been abandoned. 

Was any thing ever made of the spider s web f 

Many years ago a pair of gloves and stockings 
were produced as a curiosity. 



154 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Does the silk-worm spin while it is in the caterpillar 
state ? 

It does not usually commence until it is about 32 
days old, and ready to become a chrysalis. 
What is a chrysalis ? 

It is the state into which insects pass from the 
form of worms before becoming winged, as moths, 
wasps, butterflies, etc. 

What takes place during that time ? 

The Insect weaves a covering for its body, some 
times very smooth on the outer part, and sometimes 
rough or silky. 

Before weaving the silk, does the caterpillar undergo 
any change ? 

Yes ; it sheds its skin four times. By increasing 
the heat it will do this in about half the usual 
time. 

Explain the method of spinning the thread. 

The silk gum used for the purpose, forms after the 
last moulting or change of skin. Before that, the 
caterpillar eats greedily, but now the appetite dimin- 
ishes as the spinning commences, during which time 
it eats little or nothing. 

Where is the spinning apparatus f 

It is placed near the mouth of the worm, which is 
joined to the bags of silk gum, that are closed below 
and end in very delicate tubes, one on each side of a 
bag, these all unite and form a single spinning tube, 
through which the gum is drawn : each thread of silk 
has two strands. 



SILK. — EARLY HISTORY. I55 

How does the zvork begin ? 

The caterpillar first makes an outer covering of 
floss silk, to keep off the rain, a roll of paper or some 
thing is usually furnished where it can retire, as it 
will always hide itself, when in the wild state. 

What then follows ? 

It spins a finer web within the first, entirely cov> 
ering the body to protect it from the cold and storms, 
and then still another within this, finer than the last, 
glued so firmly together that not even the air can 
enter. This is the -cocoon. 

What does the worm then become f 

It passes into the chrysalis state, after that becomes 
a moth, when it bursts through its three coverings and 
comes out. 

How does a cocoon look ? 

It is about the size of a pigeon's egg, of a bright 
yellow color. 

How long before the moth comes out of the cocoon ? 

The time varies from 1 5 to 56 days, according to 
the temperature. In the Southern States about 15 
days, in Connecticut, 18 to 20. In France, three 
weeks, and in England, 5 or 6. The cocoon can be 
made in a few hours, although sometimes 2 or 3 days 
are necessary. 

What mistakes will the caterpillar sometimes 
make? 

Two or three will shut themselves up in the same 
cocoon, but this does not seem to make any difference, 
the usual work and changes go on the same as ever. 



156 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

How is the silk unwoimd when covered tvith ghie ? 

Sometimes the cocoons are thrown into boiling 
water, but as this, of course, kills the chrysalis, they 
can be steamed without any injury to the insect ; the 
glue is then softened so that the silk can be easily 
unwound, and the moth comes forth alive to lay its 
eggs, etc. 

What is necessary for success in raising silk-worms ? 

To secure warmth, dryness, pure air, and plenty of 
proper food ; the leaves of the mulberry tree form its 
chief nourishment. 

Do any other insects tise the same food f 

It is said that none but the silk-worm feed upon it, 
therefore the insect and tree must have been created 
for each other. 

What peculiar kind of worm in India ? 

There is one much valued by the Hindoos, as it 
produces a coarse, dark-colored silk highly esteemed 
by them. 

Are these reared in the usual way ? 

No ; they are very wild, so that the natives are 
obliged to leave the caterpillars on their trees and 
guard them from the birds by day, and from the bats 
at night. 



GENERAL PROGRESS. 157 



CHAPTER II. 

GENERAL PROGRESS, 

We have already referred to the use of silk in Ezirope, 
when was the first successful silk factory establishea 
there ? 

In 1564, at Nimes, in France ; since then the busi- 
ness has rapidly increased in the southern part of the 
country, the cHmate seeming better adapted to raising 
the worms. 

What did yames I. of England urge his subjects to 
do? 

He tried to induce them to follow the example of 
their French neighbors. 

Did they comply with the Kin^s wishes ? 

Many attempts were made to rear the silk-worm, 
but the climate was not adapted to it, although in 
Russia and Germany, where it is much colder, the 
business was quite successful. 

When was the first silk-mill erected in England? 

In 1 718, by John Lombe, who, disguised as a com- 
mon workman, obtained access to the mills at Pied- 



158 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

mont in Italy ; having acquired the necessary knowl- 
edge, and bribed some of the workmen to join him, 
they returned secretly to England. 
What followed ? 

A large mill was at once erected at Derby, five 
stories high, ■!■ of a mile long, contained 26,586 spin- 
ning wheels, that would produce /'S,'/26 yds. of silk 
thread at every revolution of the water-wheel, which 
turned once in three minutes. 

Did this attempt prove a success ? 

Yes ; it was very profitable, although the quality of 
the silk did not equal that made upon the continent. 
But in 1824, many improvements in machines, etc., 
were introduced, that made a much better fabric than 
before, so that more than $600,000, worth of goods 
were exported from England to France. 

How was the silk-worm brought to America f 

When James I. found it could not be reared in 
England, he thought it might succeed in his colonies, 
and therefore sent some eggs to Virginia as an experi- 
ment. 

What success followedf 

Although great rewards were offered if the object 
could be accomplished, yet other products proved so 
much more profitable, the silk culture declined and 
was at length abandoned. 

What can you mention as made of the silk produced 
in Virginia f 

The coronation robe of Charles II. was made of it 
in 1660. 



GENERAL PROGRESS. 159 

Were there any attempts in otJier parts of the country f 

Yes; in the i8th century efforts were made in 
nearly all the colonies. The culture was introduced 
into Louisiana in 171 8, special artists were sent from 
different parts of Europe to Georgia, to instruct the 
Americans in rearing the worms and winding the 
silk. Mulberry trees and eggs were also furnished, 
and grants of land offered to those who would engage 
in the work. 

What was then adopted f 

A State seal was struck, representing silk worms 
at work, and bearing the generous motto : " Non sibi, 
sed alius." " Not for ourselves, but others." 

What interrupted the work in Georgia f 

The agent from Piedmont, Mr. Amatis, having 
produced some silk equal to the Italian and French, 
became dissatisfied, fearing probably that America 
might rival his own country, and so destroyed all the 
machinery, trees and eggs, then fled to Carolina. 

What followed? 

His" place was soon filled by another Italian who 
took charge of a " filature " there, that is a place 
where the silk is unwound from the cocoons. 

When was the first raw silk exported ? 

In 1743, when Gen. Oglethorpe took 8 lbs. to Eng- 
land ; the next year more was sent, made into a dress 
for Queen Caroline to be worn at a levee, on the 
King's birthday. 

What success followed ? 

At Ebenezer, on the Savannah, a large establish- 



l60 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

ment was erected, and from 176010 1768, 100,000 lbs. 
of cocoons were delivered at the filature. But owing 
to the bounty being withdrawn by the English gov 
ernment, the business declined and entirely ceased at 
the time of the Revolutionary War. The last lot of 
silk, 200 lbs., was sold in Georgia in 179O. 

W/if was not the business renewed there at the close 
of the war ? 

The cultivation of cotton is found so much more 
profitable, there is but little chance for the silk culture. 
The soil and climate are however so well adapted to it, 
that in time the business may be revived. 

In what other state was silk cultivated successfully f 

In S. Carolina both as a business and an amusement. 

What can you say of Mrs. Pinchiey ? 

She was the mother of some of the Revolutionary 
generals. With her own hands she had spun and 
woven a quantity of excellent silk. 

What was done with it ? 

The lady herself took it to England where three 
complete dresses were made of the silk. One was 
presented to the Princess of Wales, and another to 
Lord Chesterfield. 

Did the bitsiness alzvays flourish in S. Carolina ? 

No ; it was brought to a close by the war, as in 
Georgia. 

Did the silk trade ever revive ? 

Yes ; although interrupted for a time by the war, it 
was again renewed, the Northern States even engag- 
ing in the business. 



GENERAL PROGRESS. l6l 

When were silk fabrics produced there? 

The first silk coat and stockings made in New 
England were worn in 1747 by Gov. Law, and in 1750 
his daughter appeared in a dress of the same material. 

Was the business found profitable ? 

It must have been, for in 1789, at Mansfield, Conn., 
200 lbs. of raw silk were manufactured, which was 
worth ^5.00 per. lb. This was made into ribbons, 
^handkerchiefs, stockings, sewing silk, etc., the latter 
selling for ^i.oo per. oz. 

Is the silk trade still carried on at the North ? 

Yes ; in many of the New England States, the 
mulberry tree seems to flourish. The finest nursery 
in the country some years since, being that of Dr. 
Stebbins at Northampton, Mass., and much success 
has attended the manufacture, but not sufficient as 
yet to make it as desirable as many other employ- 
ments. 

What was done at Auburn, N. Y. ? 

In 1841, the convicts at the State Prison there, pro- 
duced sewing-silk, worth ^12,762. 

Hozv does the ar^ticle made here compare with that 
in other coimtries ? 

It is equalix) the Chinese, and superior to much of 
the European. 

What can you say of the present condition of the 
business in this country ? 

The manufactory of Cheney Bros., commenced at 
Manchester, N. H., and soon after at Hartford, Conn., 
employed, in 1870, 1000 hands, and produced 120,000 
II 



l62 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

lbs. of silk thread, 100,000 pieces of belt ribbons, and 
600,000 yds. of wide dress silks, besides making the 
best sewing silk in the country. 

Can you mention any other places where the trade 
also flourishes ? 

At Paterson, N. J., there are 15 factories. In the 
State of N. J. nearly ;^2,ooo,ooo worth of goods are 
produced annually ; and in the U. S. to the amount of 
;^ 1 8,000,000. 

Do we import as much as formerly ? 

No ,' far less, and before long, we may be able to 
obtain all we need from the home market. 

What reason for this supposition ? 

It had been ascertained that the finest raw silk in 
the world can be obtained from California. In 1870 
12,000,000 cocoons were produced there. 

What is now being done to increase the business ? 

Groves of mulberry trees have been planted in 
many places, and every effort made to improve the 
quality as well as quantity of the silk. 

Is the climate adapted to the worm ? 

It is found equal to that of any other State, in fact 
the moth is healthier there than elsewhere ; three 
generations can be raised in a single season. 



METHOD OF MAKING SILK. 163 



CHAPTER III. 

METHOD OF MAKING SILK. 

When the cocoons are perfectly formedfWhat is done 
with them ? 

They are collected together and carefully assorted. 
Some of the best are kept for breeding, others used 
for the waste, as will be soon explained, and the rest 
are divided according to their qualities, so that each 
kind can be worked by itself. 

What follows ? 

Before the moth has life enough to eat its way out 
of the cocoon, it must be destroyed, which is done by 
exposing it to the heat of the sun, or of an oven ; some- 
times hot water and steam are also used. 

What is necessary in doing this f 

Great care is taken not to have the heat too great, 
as the quality of the silk might be injured, or even 
made worthless. 

How is it known when the insects are dead? 

By opening a few of the cocoons to see if the 
chrysalis shows any signs of life when pricked with 
a pin. 



164 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

W/iai is the next step ? 

If the insect is dead, the covering is opened at one 
end, the cocoon sHpped out, when the process of un- 
winding begins. 

Is this usually done at the same place ? 

No ; the cocoons are taken to the " filatures," and 
sold, there the work goes on. Great care is required 
to do it well, as the thread may become easily entan- 
gled or broken. 

Explain the process ? 

The cocoons are thrown into troughs having 4 
divisions, about 5 insects in each. These are filled 
with warm water to dissolve the gummy substance on 
the silk. 

What is the next step ? 

They are stirred with a little broom, which catches 
a thread from each, all of them being then united, are 
drawn through a small eyelet to remove any of the 
gum that may remain ; still more is taken off by mak- 
ing the threads cross and rub against each other as 
they pass through several more eyelets on to the reel. 

Are the silk fibers still separate ? 

No ; they have become united into one thread, 
which is wound on the reel in regular spirals, going 
from one end to the other, so that one thread does 
not overlay the other before the row is finished. 

Why is it done in this way ? 

Because if any gum still remained on the fiber it 
will have a chance to dry, that the next row of threads 
may not stick to it. 



METHOD OF MAKING SILK. 16$ 

Hoiv is the same size of thread obtained f 

New cocoons are added before the first are quite 
unwound, as the inner part of the fiber is much finer 
than the other. 

Is the thread wound round and round up07i the 
cocoon in spinning f 

No ; it is passed back and forth in one place after 
another, so that many yards can sometimes be taken 
off without turning over the ball. 

What is the sise of each fiber as it comes out of thi 
spinning bag f 

About ^^Vo 0^ ^^ inch. 

What is the color of the raw silk ? 

it is usually a bright golden color, and consists of 
many filaments slightly twisted together ; this is 
called a single thread. By pulling apart a piece of 
floss, the size and delicacy of the fiber can be easily 
seen. 

How much silk is produced by a single cocoon f 

One of a good size yields about 300 yds. of filament, 
and some even 600 yds. Usually 11 or 12 lbs. of 
cocoons are allowed for one of raw silk. 

What is done with the silk when taken from the 
reels f 

In China it is made up into bundles, called " books," 
but in other countries the hanks are simply twisted so 
as to remain snugly together, and are then ready for 
" throwing." 

Explain the meaning of that term ? 

" Throwing " signifies the different kinds of twist 



t66 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

formed from the reeled silk, according to the use 
made of it. 

Give some examples ? 

If the thread is for bandanna handkerchiefs, the 
hanks are only wound and cleaned. If for gauze and 
similar fabrics it is also bleached. That intended for 
ribbons and common silks is " thrown," of twisted 
once ; when doubled before twisting it is called 
" tram," and is used for the wool of velvets and flower- 
ed silks. The warp is made from the " organzine " 
thread as it is called, which has been twisted in each 
strand before doubling, as well as afterwards. 

What can you say of " organzine " silk f 

It is the strongest and most durable that is made. 

What is done with the hanks before winding ? 

They are washed in soap and water ; when the bob- 
bins are filled from the reels the silk passes through 
the " cleaner." 

How does this work ? 

The full bobbins are set on spindles which, being 
put in motion, each thread passes over a glass or. iron 
rod, that guides it between two upright blades, on to 
another set of bobbins which are soon filled. 

How does the '^ cleaner" act upon the thread? 

It rubs off any knots or roughness on the silk : if 
some still remain, the bobbin will not move until the 
thread is made perfectly smooth by the hand of the 
operator. 

After cleaning tvhat 7iext takes place ? 

The silk is spun and twisted by machines similar to 



METHOD OF MAKING SILK. 10/ 

those used for spinning cotton. The thread is colored 
by dyeing as soon as the gum has been removed ; for 
this purpose it is first boiled three or four hours in 
soap and water. 

What u done with the " waste " silk ? 

That is put aside untfl there is enough to use, as it 
gradually accumulates during the making of the other 
silk. It is then hackled or combed out, first by hand, 
afterward by machinery, as described for cotton, the 
impurities are thus removed ; the fibers are cut into 
pieces about li inches long, these are combed still 
more. 

Hotv does the silk look now f 

It resembles a soft downy fleece, which is boiled for 
an hour and a half in soap and water, then in pure 
water, when it is squeezed by a powerful press and 
dried by the fire or steam pipes. It is once more 
scutched or combed, then is ready for carding, draw- 
ing, etc., as already described. 

What is made of it f 

The waste silk is used for shawls, bandanna hand- 
kerchiefs, and similar articles. 

How does a thread of silk compare with one of hemp 
or flax ? 

Although so fine and delicate, it is much stronger 
and more durable. To the little silk-worm, therefore, 
we are indebted for some of our most useful and 
beautiful fabrics. 



SECTION IX. 



CHAPTER I. 

INDIA RUBBER. 

Ts the manufacture of India Rubber an old or new 
invention ? 

The uses to which it may be applied were not known 
to Europeans 150 years ago, so that it is a compara- 
tively modern invention, although the natives of the 
countries whefe it is found have used it for ages in a 
rude fashion. 

To whom are we indebted for this discovery ?_ 

The French astronomers sent to Peru in 1735, were 
the first to call attention to this useful article. In 
175 1, the tree was discovered by PMsman, in Cay- 
enne. 

Where is it found most abundantly ? 

In the Province of Para, in Brazil, immense quanti- 
ties are obtained. 

What is India Rubber f 

Caoutchouc,* or India Rubber, is the thickened 
* Pronounced Koo-chook. 



'^n 



\ 




FICUS ELASTICA, 
From whicli India Rubber is obtained. 



* 



INDIA RUBBER. 1 69 

milky juice of various trees and plants found in Brazil, 
Guiana, Peru, East Indies, etc. A similar substance 
is obtained from the Poppy-lettuce. 

Are the trees found in S. America like those in the 
East Indies f 

No ; they differ somewhat. One species, the ficus 
clastica, found in Asia, grows to a great size, measur- 
ing sometimes 74 feet in circumference and 100 feet 
in height. 

What may be seen at Assam f 

At Assam, beyond the Ganges, immense forests of 
these trees are found, but the quality of the India 
Rubber is inferior to that of S. America. In the lat- 
ter country the best species is the " Siphonica Elas- 
tica," which grows to a height of 60 or 70 feet, and is 
covered with a scaly bark. 

What does it bear? 

It produces a fruit, which encloses a kind of white 
almond, much esteenied by the natives. 

How is the sap obtained from the tree ? 

By tapping it slightly, the juice flows freely, which 
is thick, white and oily, like that of the milk-weed. 

How is it hardened ? 

By exposure to the air, it soon becomes solid. 

How is the sap collected? 

The natives cut the trees lengthwise, also making 
incisions on each side of the long one that lead to it, 
so that the juice flows from all parts of the tree at the 
same time, into a bandanna leaf at the bottom ; from 
this it passes into the vessels placed to receive it. 



I/O PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What is then done with it f 

The natives were accustomed to make moulds m 
clay, of shoes, cups, jars and other articles. While 
the sap was still fluid, it was poured over these moulds, 
then dried by fire or in the sun — when it would retain 
the desired form. 

Hoiv were the moitlds taken oiitf 

By soaking in water, they became loosened and 
could be easily removed. 

/;/ what form did India Rubber first appear in the 
U. S. f 

Clumsy overshoes were made of it, and imported 
from Para. Little square pieces were also sold for 
erasing lead pencil marks, at 50c. for \ cubic inch, 

Hoiv were candles made of it ? 

The wick being first dipped in tallow and allowed to 
harden, the sap was applied as in the case of moulds. 
The natives also make it into tubes for holding sticks 
that can be used as torches. 

When dried by the sun what is the color f 

It is white within and yellowish-brown without. If 
the heat of fire is used, the smoke makes it black, as 
we usually see it. 

Does the India Rubber dry quickly? 

No ; several days' exposure to the sun will be re- 
quired. During this time it is so soft that various 
fanciful figures can be marked upon it with a stick. 

Why is the name " syringe " sometimes given to the 
tree f 

This was applied by the Portuguese, both to the 



INDIA RUBBER. • I7I 

gum and the tree, from a peculiar custom of the na- 
tives, who presented their guests after meals with one 
of the Indian rubber bottles, having a hollow stem at- 
tached to it, for squirting the water into their mouths. 

What was the difficulty at first m tising the gum f 

The ingenious Americans having discovered how 
useful it might be made, could not find anything that 
would dissolve it, as the Caoutchouc differed from all 
gums then known ; being like resin it would not dis- 
solve in alcohol. 

After various experiments zvhat was the result ? 

It was at length found to be soluble in volatile 
oils } 

What are volatile oils ? 

Those that will evaporate when exposed to the air, 
as oil of cloves, lavender, etc., etc. Such as will not 
thus waste away are called "fixed ; " whale, coal and 
castor oils are examples of the latter. 

By mixing the gum with a volatile oil what was 
formed f 

A kind of varnish, very useful in making cloth, etc., 
water-proof. 

How zvas it applied ? 

A thin coat, placed between two pieces of cloth, 
made them adhere closely together, so as to be both 
air tight and water proof. 

What articles were made in this way ? ■ 

Bottles, boots, pillows, cushions, mattresses, etc. 
By dissolving the gum in linseed oil, an excellent var- 
nish for leather was obtained. 



1/2 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Can yoii mefition anything else that would act as a 
solvent ? 

A preparation of the rubber itself, called Caout- 
choucin.* 

How is it made ? 

Wlien the gum is exposed to a heat of 600°, it will 
pass off into vapor : if this is condensed, it will become 
the solvent required. 

What other difficulty attejtded the use of Caoutchoucf 

All the experiments made with it at first were 
obliged to be carried on in its native country, because 
the pure juice quickly spoiled when not used at once. 

How was this difficiilty remedied f 

Mr. Lee Norris, of New York, devised a plan by 
which it could be transported any distance without 
injury. 

Explain it. 

The liquor was first filtered or strained, then mixed 
with about one-eighth of its own weight of ammonia, 
which preserves it from the effect of the air. When 
necessary to use the mixture, it is poured out on some 
smooth surface, already shaped as required, and ex- 
posed to 70'^ or 100° of heat ; the ammonia will evap- 
orate, leaving the gum smooth and hard on the 
mould. 

To what uses thus far had India Rubber been ap- 
plied? 

Mostly for purposes where elasticity, or water-proof 
qualities were required. 

Pron. Koo-chookin. 



INDIA RUBBER. 1/3 

Mentio7t some articles made from it ? 

Water-proof cloth, surgical instruments, elastic 
bands, etc. Book binders also used it for securing the 
leaves of books, so as to open easily. When in thin 
sheets, impressions of engravings have been taken. It 
is also used for covering the mouths of bottles to ex- 
clude water and air. A kind of marine glue has been 
made of it. 

Hozu is this done ? 

The rubber is dissolved in coal-tar naptha, and well 
mixed. In ten or twelve days it becomes as thick as 
cream : shellac is then added, when the whole is heat- 
ed in an iron vessel having a pipe at the bottom. 
While melting, it is stirred ; the liquid then flows out 
through the pipe, and is obtained in the form of thin 
sheets. 

How is the glue tised? 

It is heated and then applied with a brush to the 
parts that are to be joined together; heated rollers 
pass over the surface, so that the work may be well 
done. 

What can you say of this glue f 

It holds so firmly, that when masts of vessels have 
been joined by it, they will break in some other part 
before a fracture takes place where it has been used- 
Even some say that it is stronger than iron bolts, and 
may be substituted for them. 

What other uses can you mention f 

Stables, lobbies, and halls in this country, as well as 
in England, have been paved with rubber. The car- 



174 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

riage-way of Windsor Castle is so paved. It is also 
used for making bath-tubs, dishes for photograph and 
chemical purposes, telegraph-wire covers, boots, shoes, 
life-preservers, toys, bags, tents, beds, buckets, etc., 
etc. New applications of it are constantly being 
made. 

WAai difficulty may still be mentioned, that had to be 
overcome before it could become of even far greater ser- 
vice than ever before f 

Thus far, it had merely been used as the raw material, 
in its native condition ; it was necessary to change the 
nature of the substance itself, as to make something 
new of it. 

Had any attempts been made to accomplish this ? 

Yes ; repeated experiments were tried by the wisest 
men, but their skill seemed baffled. 

Who at length succeeded in accomplishhig the 
work f 

This honor is due to Mr. Charles Goodyear, of New 
York. 

Was the discovery made by accident ? 

No ; it was the result of 20 years' constant toil and 
perseverance ! An example worthy of imitation by 
scholars, who are apt to be discouraged, after trying 
even one short hour, to master a difficult problem, 
hard lesson, or some other similar trouble. 

What was the result of this patient labor ? 

Mr. Goodyear discovered that if sulphur and white 
lead were mixed with the caoutchouc, and exposed to 
regular heat for 8 or 12 hours, it becomes vulcanized. 



INDIA RUBBER. 175 

What is the meaning of vulcanized ? 

It is a term applied to the change that takes place 
in caoutchouc when united with sulphur, producing an 
entirely new substance, and unlike any other, so that, 
whatever affected the rubber before, as heat and cold, 
has no power over it now. 

What other difference between the two ? 

The new article cannot be dissolved by the same 
liquids as the natural gum. It becomes much more 
elastic than before, and may now be called an " elastic 
metal." 

What is the nature of the mixtiire when put in the 
heaters f 

It is a tough, sticky, unelastic dough. On coming 
out it is very elastic, can be easily handled, and 
adapted to nearly all the purposes of life. 



iy6 PRACTICAL SCIENCi!.. 



CHAPTER II. 

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. 

When the raw material is imported, in what condi- 
tion is it found f 

It is usually in thick lumps, mixed with leaves, dirt 
and sticks, so that when cleaned it loses about one- 
fifth of its weight. 

What is first done with it ? 

A large vat being filled with hot water, the rubber 
is thrown in, and remains until the outer part is soft 
enough to' take off the basket work that covers it. 

What follows f 

By means of powerful machinery, a circular knife 
cuts the lumps into slabs about an inch thick ; these 
are then placed in the " cracker." 

What is that ? 

The name is given to a machine having two large 
cylinders, with grooves running lengthwise. The 
sheets of rubber being placed between them are torn 
and twisted to pieces, so that much of the dirt and 
sticks work out. 



PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. 1 77 

W/xai now takes place f 

It is taken to the washing machine, where many 
small knives, revolving under the water, cut the rub- 
ber into small pieces, which at the same time are 
kneaded and thoroughly cleansed, being then ready 
for the grinding machine. 

How does this work ? 

The grinding machine consists of large hollow cyl- 
inders made of cast iron. As these turn in opposite 
directions, the rubber is kneaded and pressed into 
thick sheets or mats. 

Can this be used at once f 

No ; it must first be cured, or thoroughly dried in 
the air, which requires several months. As the manu- 
facturers keep a large supply of the material on hand, 
the other parts of the work still go on. 

Whett the sheets are cured, what is done with them f 

They are put in the mixing machines, where they 
are united with metals and other substances, by means 
of very large and strong cylinders, that knead the rub- 
ber like dough. 

How are they heated f 

Steam is let in at each end of the rollers, which are 
hollow. 

What noise is heard dtiring this operation ? 

Constant explosions, like pistol-shots, caused by the 
air in the folds of the rubber, forced out by the cyl- 
inders. It is on the same principle as that which 
makes a little piece of rubber, that has been chewed, 



1/8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

explode, when struck on the hand ; a favorite amuse 
ment with children. 

What are the substa7tces mixed with the rubber'^ 

Sulphur, with oxides of iron, zinc, lead, and other 
metals. 
■ Is this an easy part of the operation f 

No, very difficult ; as greater care and skill are re- 
quired than in any other portion of the work. 

Why is this so f 

Because each quality of rubber requires different 
compounds, as well as different treatment in the vari- 
ous steps of the manufacture. 

When the substance is thus prepared, what can be 
done with it f 

It may now be moulded into any shape that is de- 
sired, the method depending of course upon the vari- 
ous uses to be made of it : whether designed for a 
comb, a carpet, steam valve, door-spring, or any of the 
many articles that are made of it. 

What canyon say of the English method of cleansing 
the rubber ? 

It is similar to the American. The power of their 
cylinder machine seems even greater than ours. 

How does this appear? 

The friction of the rollers against the caoutchouc 
is so great that the cold water put in to wash it will 
soon boil ; for we know the greater the friction be- 
tween substances, the more heat is set free. 



PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. 1 79 

How is the rubber hardened, as that used for combs, 
canes, buttons, knife-handles, etc. ? 

A preparation of bone, shell, ivory or magnesia is 
mixed with the caoutchouc. 

How is rubber formed into threads f 

When it is kneaded into sheets, long fine strips are 
cut off by knives kept wet and worked with machines ; 
these can be joined together by cutting each of the 
two ends smoothly and obliquely ; then pressing them 
with the fingers they will unite very quickly and 
firmly. 

What change takes place in the thread when it is 
reeled off? 

By passing through the moistened fingers of a boy, 
it is stretched out nearly eight times longer than be- 
fore, ceases to be elastic, and remains upon the reels 
about eight days. 

What is then done with it f 

The threads being wound upon bobbins, are ready 
for weaving, braiding, etc. 

Are all equally fine ? 

No ; there are different qualities, according to the 
use to be made of them. 

How can India Rubber cloth, cord, etc., be elastic, if 
the thread has lost its elasticity by stretching as just 
described ? 

The rubber thread, when stretched, is woven with 
silk, cotton or whatever other material may be requir- 
ed, after which a hot iron being passed over the fabric 
the elasticity is restored at once. The rubber returns 



l80 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

to its former length, drawing up with it the materials 
woven in, thus giving the shirred appearance always 
seen. 

Are the differejit articles made from rubber all manu- 
factured at the same place ? 

No ; as some require larger and more powerful ma- 
chines, as well as different methods and materials, 
there are various factories for the separate branches 
of the business. 

Give an example of one. 

The manufacture of " belting " is a very important 
item in the Rubber Mills, as it can be made stronger 
than any leather produced. 

For zvhat is it used ? 

Belting forms the bands we see passing around 
large and small wheels of all kinds of machinery. If 
it was not made very strong, great damage might be 
done by the breaking of these bands. It will adhere 
to the pulley so closely that there is never any danger 
of slipping off, as is the case with leather. 

Of what is the belting made ? 

" Cotton duck," a strong kind of cotton cloth, is 
used for the foundation, being woven so as to have 
twice the usual strength in its length. - By means of 
powerful machines, the rubber is forced into the 
meshes of the duck. 

What is now done with it f 

The cloth thus prepared, is passed through the cal- 
ender machine, where a coating of rubber is rolled 



PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. l8l 

upon it, in a perfectly smooth sheet, so pressed and 
heated in, that it becomes a part of the cloth itself. 
What follows ? 

It is taken, to the belt-room, spread upon tables 
100 feet long, and cut into strips of various widths, 
according to the kind of belting required. 

If belts of great strength are made what is done ? 

Several of the strips are pressed together by im- 
mense rolling machines, making them strong as metal 
and more serviceable, as they are not affected by heat, 
cold, or moisture. 

Are they now ready to use ? 

No ; they must pass into the "heaters," which are 
long steam boilers. The door being opened, a rail- 
way carriage is drawn out, the goods are placed on 
this and rolled back into the boiler, which is now 
closed and the steam admitted. 

How long do they remain there f 

From 8 to 12 hours, when they become "vulcan- 
ized ; " or changed from rubber and cloth into a mate- 
rial differing from either. 

What other very useful article can you mention made 
of similar materials ? 

The " Croton hose" for fire engines and other 
water purposes. 

How is it made f 

A long iron tube, from i to I2 inches in diameter, is 
covered with a sheet of rubber very carefully pre- 
pared. Over this are layers of cloth similar to belting- 
duck. When there are folds enough to give it the re- 



1 82 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

quired strength, an outer covering of pure rubber is 
added. 

What follows f 

The pipes with the hose on them are placed in im- 
mense heaters, where the steam is let on as above 
described for belting. When they have become vul- 
canized, the pipes are removed from the hose, which 
is then tested. If of the proper strength, it will stand 
a pressure that would burst the strongest leather pipe. 

Caiz you mention any other use to which this peculiar 
kind of rubber cloth is applied? 

The immense valves of ocean steamers, sometimes 
five feet in diameter, are made of it. 

What is the great wonder connected with India Rub- 
ber? 

That one single substance can be applied to so 
many uses, for which nothing else will answer the 
same purpose, and that jnnding it so very useful, we 
could have done without it so long. 

Are there any other uses to be made of it? 

Doubtless ; very many of which we have never 
dreamed, as new ways of applying it are discovered 
every day. No other discovery or invention was ever 
made that advanced so rapidly and became so gener- 
ally useful as that of caoutchouc. 



GUTTA PERCHA. 183 



CHAPTER III. 

GUTTA PERCHA. 

W/tat substance has been discovered closely resefnb' 
ting Caoutchott? 

Gutta Percha. It is so called from Gutta, meaning 
a gum, and Percha, the name of a tree. The Malays, 
however, call it " Gtitta Uiban." 

Where is the tree found f 

It grows in large forests at the foot of the hills in 
the peninsula of Malay, and forms the principal part of 
the jungle in the lowlands. It is also found in Borneo 
and other islands of the Indian archipelago. 

Describe the tree. 

It is quite large, from 3 to 6 ft. in diameter, grows 
to the height of 60 or 70 ft. The gum collects in 
cavities running the length of the tree. This flows 
out when the tree is tapped like caoutchouc. The 
natives, however, always gathered it by first cutting 
down the tree, as they knew nothing of tapping. 

How many trees were thus sacrificed ? 

In about a year and a-half 69,180 trees were cut 
down to obtain a little over 9,000 lbs. of the Gutta. 



184 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Has this article been knoivnfor a long time ? 

The Malayans knew of its valuable properties long 
before the Europeans found out that it would become 
soft when put in hot water, and if then moulded would 
retain whatever shape was given it. 

For what purposes did they make it f 

It was formed into shoes, basins, vases, whips, 
handles for axes, etc. 

When was the attention of Etiropeans first called to 
it? 

In 1842, Dr. Wm. Montgomerie, a surgeon at 
Singapore, also another physician the next year, 
brought specimens of Gutta Percha to England. 

Did it attract much attention ? 

Not at first ; but as Dr. Voss showed that it could 
be used for almost the same purposes as caoutchouc, 
as well as others, and might be obtained in great 
quantities at little cost, people became interested in 
it. 

How rapidly did the business progress ? 

The first shipment of 2 cwt. was made from Singa- 
pore in 1844, and in little more than four years nearly 
3,000,000 lbs. were exported, of which almost half 
came to the United States. 

How does Gutta Percha differ from Caoutchouc ? 

It does notbecome elastic as rubber, although when 
heated it may be made quite flexible, and if the heat 
is increased, can be drav»^n into threads or tubes and 
rolled into thin plates, which retain their form when 
cold. 



GUTTA PERCHA. l8$ 

Is the gum easily dissolved ? 

No ; there are few liquids that have any effect upon 
it Oil of turpentine will dissolve it partially when 
cold. Ether may also be used for the same purpose 
if there is no alchohol in either of them. 

What is the most important use made of it ? 

As the Gutta Percha, when dry, is a bad conductor 
of electricity, it is found very suitable for coating the 
submarine telegraph wires, that is, those that pass 
under water. 

Of what is it composed? 

Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen form the substance, 
these elements being the same as in Caoutchouc, ex- 
cept that oxygen is wanting in the latter. 

Can Gutta Percha be tisedfor coating leather? 

It is not found to answer the purpose as well as 
Caoutchouc, because the oils in the leather will decom- 
pose it ; but rubber not being affected by oils at all, 
is an admirable dressing. 

What can you say of the process for preparing 
Gutta Percha ? 

It is similar to that already described for Caout- 
chouc, and can also be vulcanized, the process being 
different for the various articles to be made of it. It 
is found that by combining the Rubber and Gutta 
Percha, a still better material is obtained than either 
would furnish alone. 

Can you mention some at tides made of the latter? 

They are almost innumerable ; as household uten- 
sils, ornaments in architecture, chemical apparatus. 



180 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

surgical instruments, parts of machinery, knapsacks, 
water-proof clothing, dolls, combs, clock cases, lining 
for sinks and cisterns, etc. 

Can you mention any other very important use to 
which it is applied f 

Life-boats are made of Gutta Percha, and have been 
found much stronger and more durable than any other 
kind. 

Can you give an instance ? 

A boat of this material having a wooden frame was 
furnished by Lady Franklin to one of the Arctic expe- 
ditions, and although exposed to the roughest work of 
the voyage, came back to England in excellent con- 
dition. 

Will you mention another i 

In 1858 one was exhibited in New York having the 
ribs and keel all of the same piece as the rest of the 
boat. 

How do surgeons find it very useful f 

In making cases for diseased, fractured or deformed 
limbs. 

How are they used? 

The bands of Gutta Percha, 2 or 3 inches broad, 
are softened in hot water, then placed on the limb, 
when they become very firm and yet quite flexible. 

Can you mention still another use made of it ? 

When Gutta Percha is dissolved and placed on a 
cut, it will firmly unite the edges, and if applied to 
flesh where the skin is removed, an artificial cuticle 
will be formed. Dentists also use it for temporary 



GUTTA PERCHA. 1 8/ 

filling of teetli, as well as making plates of it for arti- 
ficial ones. 

What can you say of this discovery f 

It is like Caoutchouc, one of the most important 
ever made, and in the few years it has been used, may 
be regarded as one of the most valuable articles of 
trade, and in connection with telegraphing, is almost 
indispensable, as nothing yet has been found for coat- 
ing wires, to be used under the sea, so strong, durable, 
and able to resist the action of water as this. 



SECTION X. 
CHAPTER I. 

CLOCKS AND WATCHES. 

Wei'e Clocks and Watches known to the aftcients ? 

No ; they may be classed among modern inventions. 

How was time measured before Clocks were tised? 

The ancients marked its progress by the movement 
of the heavenly bodies, and measured it by the sun's 
shadow passing over a sun-dial. 

How is a sjm-dial made ? 

A circular piece of metal is divided into twelve 
equal parts like the face of a clock, and marked with 
the hours. This is laid upon a raised support, upon 
which is placed a piece of metal in the form of a 
triangle. When the sun shines, the shadow of the 
metal will fall exactly on the figure, marking the hour, 
and as the sun seems to move, the shadow of course 
does the same. 

If it was cloudy what could the ancients sicbstitute 
for the sun-dial ? 

A clepsydra, or water-clock, was then used. The 



m 



CLOCKS AND WATCHES. 1 89 

fluid flovv^ed through a small hole in the bottom of a 
vessel into one beneath it. 

How could this tell the time f 

If the vessel was filled at noon, or any hour already 
known, as the water flowed out, the little marks on 
the inside would tell how much time had elapsed, by 
knowing how long it was in passing from one to the 
other. 

In what other way was time measured f 

By sand-glasses, the principle being the same in 
both. In the latter, sand was used instead of water. 

Can you mention any other kind of Water-Clocks ? 

One was invented in the 1 7th century. It consists 
of a cylinder having small cells. This is hung by a 
thread fastened to the centre in a small frame on 
which the hours are marked. 

How does it ivork f 

The water flowing from one cell to another causes 
the center of gravity to change, and the cylinder of 
course moves accordingly, thus showing, by its posi- 
tion and certain marks, the required hour. 

How did Alfred the Great meastire timef 

By means of candles which required a certain length 
of time to consume, and in order that the air might 
not affect their burning regularly, he had each candle 
covered with ox-horns, these being the first lanterns 
ever used. 

When were clocks invented ? 

This is not certainly known. They appear to have 
been first used in Europe in the monasteries, about 



190 PRACTICAL SClENCfi. 

the nth century; the Saracens were probably the 
inventors. 

IV/iat can you say of the Sttltan of Egypt f 

In 1232 he sent to the Emperor, Frederick II., a 
clock, or horologium, as it was called, having weights 
and wheels, not only showing the hour but also the 
movements of the heavenly bodies very exactly. In 
1288, a clock was placed in Westminster Hall, prob- 
ably the first one used in England. 

What progress was made -with this invention ? 

It must have been very slow ; for late in the 14th 
century, Charles V. of France engaged a German to 
put up a large striking clock in his palace. It had 
only one hand and would go but a single day. 

Were Clocks at first large or small f 

They were very large and could be used only in 
churches and monasteries. The wheels were at first 
three feet in diameter. 

On what principle are Clocks and Watches made? 

The principle which moves the works, is a con- 
trivance, called an escapement, that regulates the ac- 
tion of the pendulum in clocks, or of the balance in 
watches, so that the former shall fall, and the latter 
unwind with exact regularity. 

Why is it called an escapement ? 

Because it allows each tooth of the wheel that it 
holds, to escape at every vibration, which causes the 
ticking. 

When was it first used? 

It is not certainly known, although some say we 



CLOCKS AND WATCHES, I9I 

are indebted to Gerbert, a Frenchman, who lived about 
A.D. 1000. 

W/io invented the pendulum ? 

This honor is due to GaHleo, and Richard Harris, 
being constructed in 1641, although Huygens, a Ger- 
man, also claims to be the inventor. It is certain, at 
least, that he did much towards making the use of it 
more fully understood and generally applied. 

How does a pendtdum regulate the movements of a 
Clock? 

The vibration or swinging of the pendulum causes 
the motion of the wheel-work in the clock. If the 
former vibrates rapidly or slowly, the latter will do the 
same, making the clock go faster or slower as may be 
desired. 

How can the movement of the pendulum be increased 
or diminished ? 

By changing the length of the metal rod. If it is 
to go faster,the pendulum must be shortened, if slower 
it is lengthened. 

If it is once fixed the right length, will not the Clock 
always keep exact time f 

No ; for as heat expands and cold contracts metals, 
as well as other things, the clock is apt to gain time 
in winter, and lose it in summer, for the pendulum is 
longer in summer than in winter, so that it must be 
regulated accordingly. 

Can not some other kind of a pendulum he made that 
will not be affected by the heat and cold? 

Various attempts have been made to do this. One 



192 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

very ingenious contrivance of George Graham, in 1715^ 
deserves to be mentioned. 
WiUyott explain it ? 

He used a little tube of mercury instead of the pen^ 
dulum ball. Now mercury when heated will rise ir 
the tube, and sink when cold, so that it was founC 
almost exactly to balance the lengthening of the re 
in summer and the contraction in winter. 

Caji you mention still another contrivance ? 

In 1726, John Harrison made what was called the 
•' Gridiron Pendulum." It was composed of 5 rods of 
steel and 4 of brass alternating with each other. 

How did it work ? 

As brass dilates by heat and contracts by cole 
twice as much as steel, it was found that as the one 
set of rods by expanding, pushed the pendulum bal^ 
away from the point on which it was suspended, the 
other set by contraction drew it back. Each so coun-j 
teracting the effect produced by the other, that perfe( 
regularity in time was attained. 

What other use did Harriso7i make of this principle T 

He so applied it to the springs and wheels of 
watches, that the result was the same. 

Did he obtain any reward for his invention f 

The English Parliament gave him ;^20,ooo, this 
being the prize offered by the government for any one 
who could produce a perfect time-keeper. 

Is there any fixed length for a pendulum ? 

It must be about 39 inches to beat seconds. In 






WATCHES AND CLOCKS. I93 

small clocks the pendulum swings twice and some- 
times more in a second. 

How can you best tinderstand the movement of the 
escapement and pendulum ? 

By examining a watch or clock while the works are 
still in motion. The whole mechanism will then ap- 
pear very plain. 

What nation has made the greatest progress in the 
art of Clock and Watch making "? 

The Swiss watches have been usually regarded as 
the best ; many ingenious contrivances were intro- 
duced into them not found in those of other nations. 

Ta what have the English directed their attention f 

They have devoted much time and care to the per- 
fection of each part of the clock or watch, producing 
very elegant and costly specimens. The Americans, 
on the other hand, have sought to make theirs as 
cheap as possible, at the same time furnishing excel- 
lent and accurate time-pieces. 

What great difference in the mode of manufacture ? 

The English clocks are made by hand, those of 
America and France by machinery. 

What can you, say of the first Clocks that were made ? 

They were very large, and so expensive that only 
wealthy persons had them. Some were six or eight 
feet high, often without any case, except for the up- 
per part. The weights nearly reached to the floor, 
and afforded children much amusement as they 
swung them back and forth, interfering sadly with 
the regularity of time. 

13 



194 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER n. 

AMERICAN CLOCKS. 

Where ivere Clocks first made in the U. S. ? 

At the time of forming our government, Eli Teny 
of Windsor, Conn., made small clocks of wood to hang 
against the wall. In 1793 he established himself in 
the business, and in 1800 obtained the help of two 
young men. 

How did they make these Clocks? 

All the work was done by hand. The wheels were 
marked out with square and compass, then cut with a 
fine saw and jack-knife, the teeth being formed in the 
same way. 

Where was their salesroom ? 

They had none. But twice a year Mr. Terry would 
pack up the clocks he had made, and go into the 
''new country," to sell them at $25 each. 
Where was the 7iew country ? 

This was the name given to the region west of the 
Hudson River. The clocks were then called " Wooden 
Movements." 



AMERICAN CLOCKS. I95 

W/iai sttccess attended these rude attempts f 

His work was in such demand that in 1807 several 
of the citizens in Waterbury, Conn., formed a com- 
pany to furnish Terry with materials for making the 
^^ movements!'' 

What then followed ? 

Having purchased an old mill, Mr. Terry fitted it 
with some machinery, and commenced making 500 
clocks at once, which was more than any clock-maker 
in the world had ever attempted. 

What change took place in the price f 

Formerly $25 had been paid for one. The price 
was now reduced to ^20, ^15, and finally, about 181 1 
or 1812, to ^10 each. 

Did Mr. Terry continue the business ? 

Although he sold his factory to Messrs. Thomas 
& Hadley, yet he afterwards resumed it. 

What can you say of Mr. Thomas ? 

In 18 1 3 he removed his business to Plymouth, the 
part of the town he occupied being called Thomas- 
town. He, with his sons and partners, have remained 
there up to the present time, and now carry on the 
largest clock manufactory in the world. 

Where are their clocks used ? 

In every part of our own country, as well as in 
many others. We can hardly open the door of any 
common clock without seeing the name of Seth 
Thomas. 

Of what material were Clocks made for a long time ? 

Entirely of wood, various kinds being used for the 



196 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

different parts. In 1837, a clock having brass wheels, 
etc., was invented that would run for thirty hours, and 
in a few years eight-day clocks appeared. 

Wei'e they very expensive ? 

No ; the expense of manufacturing them had been 
lessened so much, that good 30 hour clocks were sold 
for 75c. each, and those running 8 days for ^4. 

Has the business continued to increase ? 

Yes, very rapidly ; all the parts being now made by 
machinery. Every year immense numbers are ex- 
ported to all the countries of Europe ; also, to China, 
Japan, and S. Africa, and many firms are busily en- 
gaged in turning out these useful articles. 

Which is the leading Company ? 

That of Seth Thomas & Co. They make over 
150,000 clocks every year. The whole number manu- 
factured in the U. S. is about 725,000, their value in 
the market being at least ^1,850,000. 

What change has been made in the method of mak- 
ing Clocks ? 

It has been found that the " movements'' or wheel 
work of a watch will answer as well for clocks, the 
weights and pendulum being unnecessary, although 
still used in the common clocks. 

What are substituted for them ? 

The main-spring and fusee. By this change clocks 
can be made of almost any shape or style, so that 
greater variety and beauty are attained, which is a 
great object with both buyers and sellers. 

Hoiv is the skill of the wo^'kman displayed? 



AMERICAN CLOCKS. 197 

Not only in the beauty of the exterior finish, but 
also in the curious workmanship of the parts within. 

IVko have shown the most skill in this matter ? 

The Swiss and Germans. They produce musical 
clocks, so made that in striking the hour a beautiful 
tune is played, at the same time little figures come 
out and dance to the music. 

What has recently been made ? 

A very wonderful clock was produced in Europe 
not long since, that not only marked the hours of the 
day but also gave the days, weeks and months of the 
year, with the positions of the heavenly bodies for any 
time required. At a certain hour figures also appear 
representing our Lord and His Disciples, who go 
through some of the scenes recorded in the Holy 
Scriptures, This was all done by the curious move- 
ments of the wheel work within, being the result of 
much labor and skill. 



198 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER III. 



WATCHES. 



Were Watches made before Clocks ? 

No ; clocks were first manufactured. Watches are 
mentioned as being made at Nuremburg, Germany, as 
early as 1467 by Peter Hele. 

What can you say of their size? 

Some were quite small, others were as large as 
dessert plates, many were egg-shaped and at first 
called the " Nuremburg Animated Egg." 

Was a Watch easily made ? 

By no means. At first a year was required to pro- 
duce one, the price even as late as the beginning of 
the i6th century, being ^1,500. 
Was it a good time-keeper ? 

No ; as it was likely to vary at least an hour every 
day. 

What change took place ? 

In the course of the next hundred years some im- 
provements were made, by which the time was more 



WATCHES. 199 

exact and the watches cheaper. But the shape was 
still very clumsy, being almost like a ball, and was 
therefore called a " biilVs eye^ 

What nation has until recently taken the lead in 
Watch-making ? 

The Swiss, who are able to produce the article much 
cheaper than their rivals, the English. 

How can they do so f 

Each workman makes it his business to produce 
one particular part of the watch, as the main-spring, 
fusee, barrel or some other piece. In this way he is 
able to do more and better work than if his skill and 
attention were divided among all the parts. 

Do the Swiss use machiiiery ? 

To some extent. Yet, much of the work is still 
done by hand, and of course is liable to many imper- 
fections not found in machine work. 

How were the principal parts of the Watch at first 



A little cylinder called the " barrel " had the main- 
spring — a very fine, delicate piece of steel — coiled 
within it, which moved the cylinder. Around the bar- 
rel a thread of catgut was wound, which connected it 
with the fusee. 

What is the fusee ? 

It is a little grooved, cone-shaped wheel. When 
the watch was wound, the catgut passed on the fusee 
from the barrel, at the same time that the main-spring 
was coiled up. The last coils of the catgut were on 



200 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

the small end of the cone, as can easily be seen by 
examining- a watch. 

Is this method still in use? 

Yes ; the same principle accomplishes the desired 
object, viz., to obtain great regularity in all the 
" movements," as the accuracy of the time-piece de- 
pends upon this. A chain has now been substituted 
for the catgut. 

Explain how this principle works. 

When the watch is wound up, the main-spring is 
of course very closely coiled, and therefore unwinds 
at first with much more force than afterwards, so that 
if there was nothing to counteract this greater power, 
the watch would go much faster when first started 
than later. 

Has anything been invented to accomplish this ? 

Yes ; a curious contrivance called the ///i"^^, already 
described. 

Explain its action. 

As we have said, the main-spring uncoils at first 
very quickly, but at the same time the chain on the 
fusee unwinds and passes on around the barrel, com- 
mencing at the smaller part of the cone where, though 
the power is great, yet the leverage, or action of the 
lever, is small, so that it unwinds quite slowly, but 
after a little, this gradually increases unwinding faster 
while the movement of the main-spring has decreased 
in the same proportion. 

Hozv long does this variation cojiiinue ? 

Until the watch has " run down" as we say, or un- 



WATCHES. 201 

til all the chain from the cone has passed on to the 
barrel, when it must be again wound, and the same 
movement is continued. 

Witk ivhat is the fusee connected ? 

With the first, or principal wheel of the watch by a 
ratchet or a small tooth at the bottom of the fusee, 
which stops it while winding up, although sometimes 
by means of a stiff spring in the great wheel the 
watch is still allowed to go on. 

Are the chain and fusee now used in Watches ? 

The English being strongly attached to their old 
methods of work, still use them, but they are dis- 
pensed with in the American and Swiss watches. 

What advantage in that change f 

The works are now very simple, as the numerous 
pivots and links with the chain and fusee, add about 
600 pieces to the " movements" which, with the re- 
maining parts, increase the number to 8cx) in a com- 
plete English watch. A good American time-keeper 
requires only 150 or 200 pieces. 

What regulates the motion of American Watches ? 

, A delicate hair-spring, which can readily be seen in 

an ordinary watch. By the connection of this spring 

with the balance-wheel, the latter performs the work 

of the best pendulum. 

To what is it fastened? 

One end is attached to the axis of the wheel, the 
other to the frame. The balance moves by means of 
a little scape-wheel, similar to the clock escapement 
its motion being regulated by the hair-spring. 



202 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

If a Watch goes too fast or too slow how is it regu- 
lated ? 

Simply by lengthening or shortening this delicate 
spring, on the same principle as a clock is regulated 
by varying the length of the pendulum. 

Of what are these springs made ? 

Those in general use are of the very best tempered 
steel. It has been found, however, that glass answers 
the purpose still better, not being affected by 
the heat and cold, but for some reason they have 
not been generally introduced. Glass has been tried 
successfully for balance-wheels. 

How are Watches usually wound up f 

By a key placed in a hole on the cover. Recently, 
however, a method has been devised by which the key 
is dispensed with. Certain springs in the handle 
answer the same purpose. 

What kind of a Watch had Napoleon I. ? 

He carried one that could be wound by the motion 
of the body when walking. 



AMERICAN WATCHES. 203 



CHAPTER IV. 

AMERICAN WATCHES. 

How long has the Watch-making business been car- 
ried on in this country ? 

It is only within a few years that the complete man- 
ufacture of watches has been conducted in the U. S. 

How were they made here before that time ? 

The springs, fusees and escapements were all im- 
ported, for at least sixty years, and then with great 
trouble and labor, combined with the other movements 
that were worked out. 

Why did not the Americans make all the parts ? 

They did not know how ; and the Swiss were un- 
willing to teach them, or even allow any of their ma- 
chines, models or drawings to be exported, lest they 
should lose the control of the business, which had 
been so long very profitable to them. 

Were the Americans discouraged by these obstacles ? 

No ; with determination and perseverance they 
found a remedy for the difficulty, .as in the case of 



204 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Mr. Lowell, who invented his own machines for manu- 
facturing cotton cloth, already described. 

Explain in what way f 

An ingenious watchmaker, A. L. Denison of Boston, 
conceived the idea of including in one manufactory all 
the machinery necessary for making every part of a 
perfect watch. By so doing, he thought it would be 
possible to turn out ten watches per day. 

What had been the previous method ? 

In Switzerland, where nearly all the " movements " 
were made, there were separate workmen, machines, 
and often a different room or building for each piece. 

How did people regard the proposal of Mr. Denison ? 

Many thought he was crazy, but at length he per- 
suaded three other watchmakers to join him, and to- 
gether they built a factory at Roxbury, Mass., in 1852, 

Did they meet with any difficnlties ? 

Yes, very many ; the greatest of which was the want 
of plans and machines. As they could not obtain any 
from Switzerland, they determined to make their own. 

What suceess had they ? 

In 1853, the iirst watch was completed, an excellent 
time-keeper, although not as elegant as many have 
since been made. 

Can you mention any other difficulty to be met ? 

The workmen found that a certain fine dust, con- 
stantly rising from the clay soil, was injurious to the 
more delicate parts of their work. Consequently the 
establishment was removed to Charles River, near the 
village of Waltham. 



AMERICAN WATCHES. 205 

Is it still in operation ? 

Yes ; and employs 700 workmen, turning out 80,000 
watches every year. In 1870 they had made 500,000 
since the commencement of the business. 

Are there factories hi other places ? 

Yes ; at Springfield, Mass., Newark and Marion, 
N. J., and at Elgin, Ills. 

What can yon say of the latter ? 

That at Elgin even rivals the Waltham factory. 

How, and when was it commenced f 

Some active business men in Chicago felt that 
watches could be made at the West, as well as m Mass., 
and they determined to try the experiment, which 
commenced in 1864. 

What can you say of the undertaking f 

They found it to be much greater than they had at 
first supposed ; still they persevered, and after spend- 
ing some ^500,000 in the business, the result was a 
complete success. 

How do their watches rank for excellence ? 

There are none superior to them ; being considered 
the most accurate time-keepers known, and will stand 
the severest tests that may be applied to them, being 
used constantly on the cars and at sea, without any 
variation. 

Although established so recently, what is the Elgin 
Factory able to do ? 

In 1870 it employed 450 hands, and produced from 
40,000 to 50,000 watches annually, of nine different 
patterns. 



206 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Do they make the complete article ? 

No ; the movements only are manufactured by 
them. They sell these to the dealers in watches, who 
case them as they choose, to suit their different cus- 
tomers. 

How does these Watches compare with the English ? 

They are much more simple, having only 156 pieces, 
being thus easily repaired, while they are also very 
durable and accurate. 

What peculiar system is followed in making them ? 

In every watch of the same pattern the correspond- 
ing pieces are exactly alike, so that if any part is in- 
jured it is only necessary to send the number and 
style of the watch, mentioning the part that is defect- 
ive, and by return mail an exact duplicate will be sent. 

Is there any other peculiarity in these Watches f ' 

They have a curiously contrived " dust-band," as it 
is called, which encloses the more delicate parts of the 
works so completely that they are perfectly protected. 

How do foreigners regard these Watches f 

They value them so highly that many known to be 
made in Europe, bear the names of Americans as 
manufacturers, to make them more saleable. Others 
in this country, who cannot make their "movements" 
equal to the Elgin or Waltham works, will import some 
of very inferior quality, and putting them together, 
sell them for real American watches, using the label 
of some well-known company or firm. 

Where are the real American Watches found? 

In every part of the world, the demand for them 



AMERICAN WATCHES. 20/ 

being very great. In this, as in many other improve- 
ments already mentioned, we are indebted to the per- 
severing skill and ingenuity of our energetic country* 
men. For in no other nation do we find the same traits 
of character so fully and generally developed as iri 
America. 



SECTION XI. 



CHAPTER I. 



PLATED WARE. 



Wkat is Plated Ware ? 

It is any common metal, as copper, brass, britannia, 
etc., upon which a thin coating of gold or silver is 
placed. 

How is this done ? 

The present method is by electro-galvanism ; but 
another was used for many years before this was 
known. 

Explain the old process ? 

The figure to be gilded was made of iron, brass or 
some base metal, as it is called. This was polished 
and heated until the metal became blue, then the leaf 
gold was applied, when it was polished a little, heated 
and polished again. 

Was there any other method f 

Yes ; metals could be gilded by a process called 
amalgamation. 



PLATED WARE. 2O9 

Explain it. 

An amalgam is a mixture of mercury with gold, 
silver, and other metals. This being formed into a 
paste was applied to the metal by dipping or spread- 
ing it over the surface, to which it adheres. Being 
then exposed to heat the mercury evaporates, leav- 
ing the gold on the metal. It is then polished and the 
work completed. Buttons, etc., are gilded in this 
way. 

Sometimes we see ornam-ental gold figures on steel : 
how was that done ? 

The gold was dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid ; ether, 
or some volatile oil was added, when the mixture being 
shaken, the gold and ether unite. This was then ap- 
plied to the steel in whatever figures were required 
with a camel' s-hair brush. 

What was then done ? 

On being exposed to heat the gold became firmly 
united to the steel, and could be polished. Sword- 
blades were ornamented in this way. 

What success zvas attained by this method ? 

The work was done so well that it became difficult 
to distinguish the gilded from the pure gold metal, 
and the demand for the real article became much less. 

Did this gilding ever wear off? 

It would last for some time with great care \ but 
the metal could not be re-gilded if once worn off. 

How long were these methods of gilding iit use .^ 

Until 1839, when Mr. Ames, an American, was sent 
to England by our government to gain some informa- 
tion about the improved methods of making fire-arms. 
14 



2IO PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

To what was his attention directed while there ? 

The English were then very much interested in the 
new method of obtaining coatings of silver by elec- 
tricity. Although it had not yet been practically ap- 
plied, this attracted his notice. 

What resulted from the experiments made f 

An entirely new process was discovered for plating 
metal, called electro-plating, because the work was 
done by means of electricity. 
What is electricity ? 

This is not certainly known ; like heat, we can only 
judge of it by the eff<3Cts produced, which are more 
powerful than from any other natural agent known. 

Has it been applied to any useful purposes ? 

Yes, very many ; the most important, is the Tele- 
graph ; a current of electricity being applied at one 
end of the wire, it will at once run the whole length 
and cause a vibration at the opposite end, and these 
vibrations being made of different lengths by the 
operator, words are indicated, and a message is sent 
any distance required. 

Can you mention any other tcses of electricity ? 

It is often employed by physicians to cure certain 
diseases ; machines are sometimes worked by this 
agent ; one of the most brilliant lights is produced by 
it, called the electric light. It is also used with div- 
ing machines, so that persons can remain a long time 
under water, where it will be as light as day. It is 
almost indispensable for light houses. 



PLATED WARE. 211 

How were metals plated by tt? 

When first used, a plate of zinc was suspended in a 
vessel containing sulphate of copper ; the objecj; to be 
coated was also hung on wires very near the zinc 
plate. 

What followed f 

A current of electricity being sent through them, 
the zinc dissolved, and some of the copper was de- 
posited on the object ; it was then said to be copper- 
plated. If silver was required instead of copper, the 
metal was first dissolved in nitric acid, distilled water 
and a preparation of potassium were added, the . 
mixture being then washed, and more potassium 
added, could be used instead of the sulphate of copper. 

What is found to be a stil^ better method f 

A plate of silver, suspended in a solution of potas- 
sium, is connected with that part of a battery where 
there is most electricity, called the positive pole. As 
this fluid passes over to the other end, which is the 
negative pole, where there is not so much, it has the 
power of taking some of the silver and depositing it 
at that point. 

What then takes place f 

The object to be coated is suspended by a copper 
wire, and dipped in nitric acid, then placed in the so- 
lution above mentioned, when silver is deposited on 
every part of it, taking care to keep it in motion that 
the whole surface may be coated alike. 

Is the work now complete f 

No ; after the object has remained some time in the 



212 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

solution, it is taken out and well brushed with sand. 
It is then placed in the mixture, and after a few hours 
will be found to have a coating of dead white silver, 
that can be polished with a hard brush and whiting, 
when it will come out perfectly bright. 

What is the advantage of the electro-plating over the 
old method? 

It is done much more readily and smoothl}^, and 
proves as durable as that for silver coin. 

How much silver is required by this process ? 

To form a plate as thick as ordinary writing paper, 
i^ or 1 1 oz. of silver to 12 sq. inches. 

Can or7iameiits be used on plated ware ? 

Yes ; the most beautiful and delicate designs are 
produced as perfectly as on the solid silver material. 



MANUFACTURE OF PLATED WARE. 213 



CHAPTER n. 

MANUFACTURE OF PLATED WARE. 

Are there any manufactories for silver-plated ware in 
the U. S. ? 

Yes ; the largest in the world is in this country, and 
is called " The Meridan Britannia Co.," having six large 
factories in different places, employing about 1000 
men, making goods of 3000 different patterns, valued 
at nearly $2,000,000 annually. 

Is the plating on their goods always of the same 
thickness ? 

No ; this varies according to the quality required ; 
the thinnest coating is called single-plated, then there 
are the double, triple or quadruple varieties. 

Mention some of the articles produced by this Com- 
pany. 

Knives, forks, spoons, castors, dinner, coffee and 
tea sets, ice-pitchers, goblets, vases, fruit-dishes, cake 
baskets, statuettes, and in short, every conceivable 
article for table or ornamental purposes. 



214 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Are any of their goods exported? 

Yes ; vast quantities every year : they also produce 
articles not usually found elsewhere. 

Mention some of them. 

Porcelain-lined ice pitchers, by which the water re- 
tains its purity of taste better than if lined with metal. 
Also the porcelain-lined baking dish. It is an iron 
dish lined with porcelain. This fits into an outer 
plated pan, which makes an elegant and useful dish 
for the table. They also make forks and spoons very 
durable, by plating the parts most in use more heavily 
than the rest. 

Can you mention any other company largely engaged 
in making silver ware ? 

The Gorham Manufacturing Co.,^of Providence, R. 
I. They use the electro-plating method to some ex- 
tent, although it is mostly the solid silver ware that- 
comes from their establishment. 

What is the extent of their business ? 

They employ about 450 hands, and use nearly 30 
tons of silver every year. 

Caiz gold be applied to metals as well as silver by 
electricity ? 

Yes ; it is dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, which 
gives chloride of gold, this is mixed and heated with 
powdered magnesia, then washed, by boiling in nitric 
acid, and afterwards dissolved in a preparation of 
potassium. 

What follows? 

The rest of the process is similar to that described 




CENTURY VASE. 
Manutactured by tlie Gorliam Company. 



MANUFACTURE OF PLATED WARE. 21 J 

for plating silver. But as iron, lead and steel do not 
readily receive the gold plating, they are therefore 
first thinly coated with copper, when the precious 
metal can be easily applied. 

Is much gold required for the process ? 

No ; an ordinary watch case can be well covered 

I within and heavily coated without, yet only 20 grains 

will be required, worth about ;^i.50. Three grains 

are sufficient for a handsome gold pen holder, worth 

only 22 cents. 

Why are plated articles then so much more expensive 
than the little amount of silver and gold would lead us 
to expect ? 

Because the various methods and steps required to 
form a perfect article from the rude materials, require 
much time and labor, far more valuable than the gold 
or silver used. 



SECTION XII. 



CUTLERY. 



CHAPTER I. 

CUTLERY IN GENERAL. 

Wkat IS meant by cutlery ? 

This term is applied to various sharp cutting or 
pointed instruments made of iron or steel. 

Of what did the ancients make such articles ? 

As they did not understand the use of metals, their 
cutlery was made of sharp stones and shells, the latter 
being still in use among rude and savage nations. 

How did the Egyptians show their skill in this mat- 
ter? 

They understood the art of giving to bronze a pecu- 
liar hardness, equal to the best tempered steel, which 
admirably adapted it to cutlery purposes. 
What is bronze? 

Bronze is a metal, compounded of copper and tin, 
to which zinc and other metals are sometimes added, 
according to the purposes for which it is intended. 



CUTLERY IN GENERAL. 21/ 

W/iai did the Greeks use ? 

Bronze seems to have answered the same purpose 
with them as for the Egyptians. Homer, their great- 
est poet, mentions in one of his poems, called the 
" Odyssey," the process for tempering it. The Romans 
also used it for swords, surgical and other cutting in- 
struments. 

How is this known ? 

These articles, found among the ruins of Pompeii 
and Herculaneum, are all of bronze. 

What other nation used cutlery f 

At the time the Romans, under Caesar, invaded 
Great Britain, spears, hooks, broadswords, scythes, 
etc., were found made of iron. In later years, Shef- 
field was noted for its manufacture of cutlery ; the 
reputation then gained being still preserved. 

What is the principle material used in making these 
articles ? 

On account of its hardness, steel is preferred to 
other metals. 

What is steel? 

It is made from wrought iron, that from which 
every other material has been removed ; when this is 
united with carbon, steel is produced. 

Explain the process. 

Bars of wrought iron, covered with charcoal, are 
placed in boxes filled with sand ; these being closed, 
are exposed to intense heat for ten days. On opening 
the boxes, the iron bars are found changed into 
steel. 



2l8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What are its peculiar properties ? 

It can be made either very brittle or elastic ; this is 
owing to the manner in which it is prepared. 

Are the articles already mentioned, made entirely of 
steel f 

No • the backs and handles or " tangs," as they are 
called, are usually of iron, which of course is much 
cheaper, the edges only being of steel. 

Mention some of the different kinds of steel. 

While being made, httle blisters form on the sur- 
face from vessels of carbon that have burst ; this is 
called blistered steel When it is heated, rolled, ham- 
mered, etc., many times, a much purer article is ob- 
tained, named " sJiear steel," because it is used for 
shears, scissors, scythes, etc. 

What is cast steel? 

This is made from wrought iron or blistered steel, 
by being mixed with powdered charcoal, then melted, 
and formed into ingots, and rolled or hammered into 
plates, bars, cannon, etc. 

What effect has Jiammering, rolling and heating upon 
this inetal f 

It becomes very elastic and pliable ; the very best 
being used for watch springs and sword blades. 

What ancient nation excelled in the mannfacture of 
steel? 

The people of Damascus ; and so successful were 
they in producing the famous " Damascus Blades," 
that all attempts to imitate them have until recently 
proved fruitless. 



CUtLERY IN GENERAL. 219 

IV/tf were these blades held in such esteem ? 

On account of the many different uses that could 
be made of them. 

Mention some. 

The steel was so hard and well tempered, that its 
keen edge could both cut the heavy iron spears of the 
enemy in battle, and the thinnest gossamer fabric ever 
made, which cannot be done with the best English 
blades. It could also be rolled, bent or folded in any 
shape, and at once became as straight as at iirst. 

What other peculiarity was observed in them ? 

The polished, surface of the blade was covered with 
delicate lines, some parallel, others waving and cross- 
ing each other, or formed in knots and bunches. 

Were these marked on the steel after the blade was 
made f 

No ; they seemed to be formed in the very sub- 
stance itself, though in what way is unknown. 

Has the method of making the Damascus blades yet 
been found out ? 

After repeated experiments and failures for a long 
time by the most skillful persons, at length, a few 
years ago, M. Breant, a Frenchman, and Gen. Anos- 
soff, a Russian, succeeded in producing steel, having 
all the qualities and appearance of those of Damascus. 
Were both methods alike ? 

We cannot of course tell whether the process in 
both f ases was the same or not ; that, however, makes 
but little difference, provided they attained the desired 
object. 



220 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

How did they accomplish this ? 

M. Breant melted soft iron with a small proportion of 
lamp-black, and obtained an excellent quality of steel ; 
yet not equal to the Demascus. Gen. Anossoff made 
use of another method, which was that used in India. 

Explain it. 

About a pound of iron ore is placed in a crucible 
or clay vessel, to which are added bits of wood and 
straw covered with green leaves. These crucibles are 
then so closely protected by moistened clay, that no 
air can enter, and are placed, about 20 together, in a 
small blast furnace. 

What follows ? 

They are kept as hot as possible for two or three 
hours, and when removed, the crucibles being broken, 
the iron has become steel in the form of lumps. 

Is it ahvays of good quality ? 

No ; usually about one-fifth of the ore is defective. 
This is known by the appearance of it. If the surface 
is smooth and marked with delicate lines, it is con- 
sidered excellent. But if rough and jagged, it must 
be rejected. 

Is the operation now complete ? 

No ; the best lumps are melted again, and to re- 
move the brittleness, they are kept red hot for some 
hours in a furnace, when the steel becomes soft and 
can be easily hammered. 

By experiments made, ivhat did Gen. Anossoff ^arn 
about the quality of steel ? 

He found out that the peculiar marks which ap- 
peared after tempering, proved its quality. 



CUTLERY IN GENERAL. 221 

In what way ? 

If the lines were straight the steel must be bad, but 
if short and broken up, it was a little better, and if 
little lines and knots appeared, this was the best of 
all. 

Had the color anything to do with it ? 

Yes ; if little color is visible the steel is inferior, 
but if of a yellowish golden hue and brilliant lustre, it 
is considered excellent. 

How many methods did Gen. A. use for making the 
true Damascus blades ? 

There were four. Only one, however, was thought 
very practicable. 

Explain it. 

The best method was to melt the iron mixed with 
graphite in crucibles; each one containing about 12 
lbs. 

What is graphite ? 

It is a certain kind of metal used for lead-pencils. 

Is any thing else added ? 

Usually a little preparation of lime, so that the other 
substances may unite more readily. The crucible 
being then closely covered and placed in the fire, 
great heat is applied. 

How long does it remain there ? 

For five or six hours, when the crucible is allowed 
to cool ; the metal is removed in lumps, and must then 
be tempered, that is, heated and hammered several 
times to improve its quality, and when red-hot, plunged 
into boiling grease, and, left to cool. 



222 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What follows ? 

When taken out, the blade, or whatever instrument 
may have been formed, is wiped perfectly clean, and 
rubbed on one side with a whetstone. It is then 
heated again, hammered, and while red-hot plunged 
into cold water. 

Is the color of the blade the same through the whole 
length f 

No ; this varies in different parts. A sabre blade is 
so tempered, that the point is brought to a blue heat, 
which is not so great as red, — the middle, to violet — 
along the edge, to yellow, and near the handle, green. 

Can it be ground and polished much f 

No ; this is apt to injure the quality of the metal, 
although with great care, a very fine and delicate edge 
can be given it — after which it is rubbed over with 
olive oil and wiped very dry — when the operation is 
complete. 

What can you say of razors m,ade by this process ? 

They are found to be far more serviceable than 
those made by the English. The same is true of 
scythes and other articles produced at the establish- 
ment of Gen. Anossoff, at Zlatoosk, in the Ural Mts. 



KNIVES AND FORKS. 223 



CHAPTER II. 

KNIVES AND FORKS. 

What are the most useful forms of cutlery ? 

Knives and forks are the most common, although 
other articles may be equally useful. 

Have they long been used ? 

Probably knives in some form and of different ma- 
terials have been made by all nations, from the ear- 
liest periods : but forks seem to be a modern inven- 
tion. 

Whe7t were they first used? 

This is not certainly known. Probably not before 
the 13th or 14th centuries. A traveller in the time of 
Queen Elizabeth says, that while at Venice, he was 
served with a fork to hold his meat when cutting it, 
as the people there did not think it polite to touch it 
with the hand. 

Can you mention a similar instance ? 

Another Englishman, who had travelled in the time 
of James I., 1608, writes to a friend, that he thought it 
best to adopt the Italian fashion of using a fork at his 



224 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

meals ! Before this the fingers answered the same 
purpose. 

How are they made ? 

Common steel forks are hammered, while hot, out 
of steel rods, each piece being of the right size for a 
fork. The tang and shank are roughly shaped at one 
end of the rod. About an inch of the square steel 
being left at the other end. 

What use is inade of that ? 

The prongs are formed of this by drawing it out per- 
fectly flat. Being then brought to a " white heat," it 
is laid in a steel die, while in a heavy block of metal, 
another die is made to fall upon it from a height of 
7 or 8 feet. 

What is the effect of this operation ? 

The die cuts out two strips of steel, leaving three 
prongs on the fork, which are then smoothed and 
dressed by means of a fly-press. 

What is the meaning of shank and tang ? 

The " tang " is the handle of the instrument, and 
the " shank," the blade or long part. After these 
have been roughly cut out, they are shaped by a die 
and swage. The latter being an instrument for shap- 
ing metals. 

What then follows f 

A number of forks are annealed by heating and 
cooling slowly, which makes them soft and easily 
shaped by filing and bending. 

Is the work nozv complete f 

No ; they must be hardened. This is done by mak- 



KNIVES AJfD FORKS. 22$ 

ing them red hot, and then plunging into cold water, 
after which they are tempered. 

Why is this necessary ? 

As metals are applied to different purposes, the 
tempering depends upon the use to be made of them. 
If hardened without tempering, the article becomes 
brittle, and would easily break. 

How is this effected? 

The metal is heated again, and suddenly plunged in 
cold water. The greater the heat, the stronger, softer 
and more elastic the steel ; such is the material re- 
quired for sword-blades, etc. But if great hardness is 
desired, as for axes, etc., the heat is less. 

How is it known when the right temper is obtained? 

The various degrees of temperature have different 
colors, which guide the workman, and decide the 
quality of the steel. 

Give an example. 

430° F. gives a pale yellow, suitable for lancets; a 
few degrees higher makes a deeper shade, for razors 
and surgical instruments. Then by gradual increase 
of heat, the color deepens through the shades of yel- 
low on to purple, blue, and green, adapting the steel 
to pen-knives, chisels, shears, axes, table-knives, 
sword-blades, watch springs, small and large saws, 
etc. The latter requiring 610'', the greatest heat used 
in tempering. 

Are the forks finished after being tempered? 

No ; they must be ground and poHshed, which is 
one of the most unhealthy operations in the cutlery 
15 



226 PRACTICAL SC1E:NCE. 

business, on account of the fine dust which fills the 
room, causing infiiammation of the lungs. 

Can this be' prevented f 

If the troughs used in grinding are furnished with 
a ventilating fan and flue, much of the dust is carried 
off. 

How is the grinding done f 

The process for forks, as well as other instruments, 
is similar, so that one explanation answers for all. 

Will yon give it ? 

The rooms in which the grinding is done are called 
" Hulls.''' Here are some six or eight troughs, as 
they are called. Each one includes a stone for grind- 
ing, a polisher, and the pulley for working it. 

Are the stones of the same size ? 

No ; they vary from 4 inches to 2 feet in diameter. 
Those used for razor blades have a convex surface, 
which gives the concave form to the instrument. 

What is the meaning of convex ? 

It means cutved out ; and concave, curved in. The 
outside of a globe is the convex part— the inside, the 
concave. 

Is water used in grinding ? 

Sometimes it is necessary, so that the temper of the 
steel may not be injured by the heat caused from dry 
grinding. If water is used, the operation is safe and 
healthy, although slower. Forks -are always ground 
without water, and those who follow this business con 
stantly, seldom live more than 30 years. 



KNIVES AND FORKS. 22/ 

After grinding, what follows ? 

The glazing, or lapping, as it is called. 

Hozv is it done ? 

The " glazier" is a wooden wheel, and the " lap " of 
the same material, having its edge covered with a 
metal rim, and grooved to hold the oil and emery for 
dressing. The article to be smoothed is placed 
against each of the wheels in turn, and as they revolve, 
the instrument is polished. 

If a higher degree of dressing is required, what 'must 
be done f 

A stick of charcoal and smooth piece of flint is 
applied. For razors, etc., wooden wheels are used, 
covered with leather, and fed with dry crocus. 

What is " crocus ? " 

This name is given to a fine yellow dust formed 
from different metals. 

Of what are the handles made f 

Ivory, horn, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, bone, 
etc. ; certain kinds of wood are used for forks, knives, 
or various other cutting instruments. 

How are they fastened? 

A solid piece of the right size and shape is cut out, 
a hole being bored in one end for the tang, the two 
are then fastened together by cement or a little spring 
catch, contrived by Rodgers, of Sheffield, Eng. 

Is there any other method f 

Yes ; sometimes the handle is bored entirely 
through ; at the end a little meta,llic cap is riveted to 
the tang, as may be seen by examining a knife or fork. 



228 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Ai^e the handles of penknives fitted in the same 
way? 

Not exactly ; as more care is necessary to do the 
work well. The springs for working the blades re- 
quire a peculiar temper, glazing and nice fitting : 
the thin plates called scales, forming the sides and 
parts of the handle, must be exactly shaped and fitted 
to each other, so that it is much more difficult to pro- 
duce 9 complete handle to a penknife, than the 
blade. 

What can yoii say of a three- bladed knife ? 

It is said to pass through the operator's hands about 
lOO times before being complete. 

Of what are the blades made ? 

The small blades are hammered out of the- best cast 
steel. A small tang is then drawn out while hot, and 
fastened to a temporary handle, so as to be ground. 

How are they tempered ? 

Several blades are placed over the fire upon a flat 
iron plate. When a brown or purple color appears, 
they are dipped in cold water, and afterwards polished. 



OTHER ARTICLES OF CUTLERY. 229 



i 



CHAPTER III. 

OTHER ARTICLES OF CUTLERY. 

Are the blades of table knives made like those de- 
scribed in the last chapter? 

The method is different. Pen-knives are formed of 
pure steel, but larger ones are made chiefly of iron, as 
being much cheaper. 

Explain the process. 

The blade of a table-knife is hammered out very 
thin upon an anvil, from a piece of shear or cast steel. 
This is then welded on to a bar of wrought iron, and 
cut off, enough of the latter being left at one end to 
form the tang. 

What is the meaning of welded f 

It is the process of uniting two metals by beating 
them together while very hot ; when thus joined, they 
appear but as one metal. 

What is now done ? 

The blades are " smithed ;" that is heated, and ham- 
mered again, when the name of the maker is stamped 
upon them ; they are then hardened by heating and 



230 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

plunging into cold water, and being tempered to a 
blue color, are ready for grinding. 

Of what are razors made ? 

The very best cast steel is used ; the blade is shaped 
upon the anvil from a piece as thick as the back of a 
razor, and half an inch wide— then well "smithed" so 
as to condense the metal as much as possible. After 
this, one part of the blade is ground down as thin as 
necessary, while the back is left thick. Only the best 
steel will bear this operation. 

What follows. 

By grinding on a dry, coarse stone, the shape is im- 
proved ; the stamping and drilling of a hole for the 
pin of the joint having been already done, it is 
ground on a wet stone, glazed and polished several 
times ; the last operation being done on a soft wheel, 
covered with dry crocus, and turning slowly, when it 
is ready for the handle. 

What materials are used for scissors ? 

They vary according to the quality of the article ; 
the common kind are of shear steel, the blades only 
being tempered ; while the best are entirely of the 
purest cast steel, all the parts being hardened. 

What can you say of tailors'' shears ? 

In these the blades only are of steel ; the rest is 
iron. Some are made of a good quality of cast iron, 
called "virgin steel ; " others are of an inferior kind of 
iron, to be exported. 

What is the price of the cheapest f 

A dozen are sold for about 7 cents. While those 



I 



OTHER ARTICLES OF CUTLERY. 23 1 

of the best steel, having the bows and handles of gold, 
sell for ^50.00 each. 

If made wholly of steel, what is the process f 

The blade is hammered out from the end of a small 
bar of that metal, and cut off the required length, al- 
lowing for the shank and bow. To form the latter, a 
hole is punched, being enlarged by means of a small 
anvil. 

How is the blade shaped f 

This is done by hammering and filing, the hole 
being bored for the screw or rivet, the blade is ground, 
filed smooth and polished with oil and fine emery. 
The ornaments are added by means of dies, which 
contain the patterns. 

How are the blades shaped ? 

They are slightly bowed so as to touch each other 
only at the point of cutting, and this point constantly 
changes as the blades close in the act of cutting, from 
the pivot to the point, which can be easily seen by 
holding a pair of scissors up to the light. 

When closed, where do the blades touch each other ? 

Only at the point and middle. By this arrange- 
ment greater smoothness is given to the movement of 
the scissors. 

Are the blades made by pairs f 

No ; they are formed of various sizes, and when 
ready to be riveted,. then matched and paired. 



232 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CUTLERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Have the Americans paid much attention to this 
branch of industry ? 

Until recently all the cutlery in use here was im- 
ported from Europe. 

What can you say of the progress lately made? 

It has been very rapid ; the articles produced here 
far surpass those of the Old World, both in the excel- 
lence of the metals, the useful models and remarkable 
degree of finish given them. 

What is the cause of the wonderful progress made in 
all usefiU works in this country ? 

It is doubtless owing to the great opportunities 
every intelligent, wide-awake workman has of improv- 
ing in all branches of his business. But in England, 
a person is only instructed in a particular portion of 
the work, knowing little or nothing of the rest, so that 
an apprentice has great difficulty in becoming master 
of his trade. 



CUTLERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 233 

Are the English fond ef improvements ? 

They are so attached to their own methods, that it 
is difficult to introduce changes in modes of work. 

How is it with the Americans ? 

It is just the reverse with them ; they are ever on 
the alert, searching constantly for some better way of 
accomplishing their labor, so that in the case of cut- 
lery, as in many others, the Americans have done in 
a few years the work of centuries in other countries. 

What can you say of an apprentice in this country. 

When a boy enters the factory, he is of course as- 
signed some particular branch of the business, but 
while being instructed in this, he is at liberty to learn 
all he can from his companions, many of whom are 
skilful workmen, so that when he has served his time 
as an apprentice, he stands a fair chance to be 
master of his trade, and not a mere journeyman. 

How long has table cutlery been manufactured in the 
U. 5. 

It was commenced in 1834, by Mr. Russell, of 
Greenfield, Mass. Two more factories were opened 
in New England, but the business seemed to make 
little progress at first. 
. What caused a change for the better? 

A machine for making the blades was invented by 
Mr. Russell, which resulted in improvement in the 
business, both here and in Europe, where it was in- 
troduced. Before this the work had been done by 
hand. 



234 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What can you say of the establishment at Green- 
field? 

It is very extensive. There 1^300,000 worth of cutlery 
are produced every year, being used in all parts of the 
U. S., as well as exported to S. America, Austraha, and 
other countries. 

Are axes made in this country ? 

Yes ; the largest factory in the world is in Connec- 
ticut. The articles produced there are shipped to vari- 
ous places, being considered superior to any others. 

How are they made ? 

The latest process forms them from hammered bar 
iron made red hot, and cut into pieces of the proper 
size. The eye which is to receive the handle is then 
punched through each one. 

What follows ? 

They are heated again, and shaped by being pressed 
between concave dies. The edge is now grooved to 
receive the piece of steel that forms the cutting part. 
The metal is welded on at white heat, and drawn out 
to the right edge by trip hammers. 

What is a trip-hammer ? 

It is a heavy iron hammer at the end of a beam, and 
worked by means of a wheel ; the force is very great. 
What remains to be done to the axe ? 

It is re-shaped by hammering, and ground to form 
the edge ; finer stones are then used for grinding, after 
which it is tempered. 

How is this done ? 

The axe is hung upon a revolving wheel over a coal 



CUTLERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 235 

fire, and dipped first in salt, then in fresh water, and 
again heated in another furnace ; after this it is highly- 
polished and stamped. The head is blackened with a 
mixture of turpentine and asphaltum, which completes 
the work. 



SECTION XIII. 



PINS AND NEEDLES, 



CHAPTER I. 



Have pins always been is use ? 

No ; as an article of trade we do not find them 
mentioned until 1483. 

What were used before this time ? 

Persons of both sexes substituted clasps, hooks and 
eyes, laces with points and tags, ribbons, loop-holes, 
skewers of brass, silver and gold. 

Do all people now have them ? 

No ; savages use thorns and fish-bones for this pur- 
pose. Pins were first made of ivory, bone and silver, 
being much larger than those of the present day. 

When was metal first applied to this purpose ? 

We read of some formed of brass wire, brought to 
England from France, and adopted by Catharine 
Howard, Queen of Henry VHI. In about three years 
afterwards they were made in England. 



PINS AND NEEDLES. 237 

IV/ia^ can yon say of this article ? 

Though so simple in appearance, it passes through 
many changes from the rough wire to the finished pin. 
What is the first step in the process ? 

Wire the size of ordinary pins is taken, and must 
first be straightened, which is done by winding on a 
reel, and then passed between 15 or 20 polished steel 
rollers, the last two being so close together that the 
wire comes out of them perfectly straight, and is 
wound loosely on immense spools. These are hung 
up until they are wanted at the machines. 

How many are required to do the work f 

By a recent invention only one is necessary to form 
a complete pin, head, point and all, though it after- 
wards requires to be cleansed and polished by another 
process. But before this machine was invented, the 
method was very long and tedious, and the result far 
from satisfactory. 

Explain the process now in use. 

The wire on entering the machine, is first cut into 
the proper length, which of course varies with the dif- 
ferent sizes made. The instant a piece is cut, a little 
hammer working so rapidly it can hardly be seen, 
striking the end of the wire, puts a head on it at once. 

What follows ? 

The wires thus headed are pushed forward sideways 
to a smooth plane under several " cutters," as they are 
called, so arranged that only the lower half of the 
pins come beneath them, as they are rolled swiftly to 
the end of the machine. 



?38 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

What work do these cutters perform ? 

They are so arranged as to make 4000 revolutions 
in a minute, while pointing the pins and passing them 
to the receiver, where going through a spout they fall 
into tin vessels holding about a quart. Being ex- 
amined here, the defective ones are cast aside, and the 
rest are put in larger pans. The pins are now com- 
plete as to their form. 

What remains to be done ? 

As they are covered with oil and wire filings, it is 
necessary to clean them. 

How is this ejfected ? 

The pins are taken to another room where there are 
two large revolving casks, partly filled with sawdust. 
A bushel or two of pins are put in, and all thoroughly 
shaken in order to clean them still more. 
What is the next step f 

They are taken to another room, and passed through 
a fanning-mill, very much like that for cleaning grain. 
This machine being worked, the sawdust is removed, 
leaving the pins clean and bright. 

Is the work now finished? 

Not quite ; they are taken to large tanks, in the bot- 
tom of which are blocks of tin pierced with holes. 
Upon these the pins are placed, then a layer of tin 
blocks, and so on until the tank is filled, when the 
whole mass is boiled by steam. 

What effect is produced by this operation ? 

It gives the peculiar silver color we always see, and 
also prevents them from rusting easily. They are 



PINS. 2sg 

now emptied into a large sink, washed, then passed 
again through the revolving casks and fanning-mill, 
when they are ready for the papers. 

Is this part done by hand ? 

It was formerly, when a good operative could stick 
five or six dozen papers in a day. But now, by an in-' 
genious machine, one person can fill from 75 to 125 
dozen a day, doing the work much more exactly than 
before. 

Explain the working of it. 

Although a large and peculiar machine, it i^ 
managed by young girls, each one sitting before the 
table, above which is a hopper very much like that 
in a flour mill, and shaken in the same way. 

For what purpose are the hoppers intended f 

They contain the pins which are to be pilt in the 
papers. As the hopper moves, they fall out on art 
inclined iron plane, having a groove in the centre just 
large enough to allow all but the head of the pin to 
pass through. 

What may be seen under this plane ? 

An iron rack marked with rows of holes to corres- 
pond with those necessary to be formed in the papers^ 
By working the machine the pins are driven evenly 
through the ridges on the strips of paper beneath ; 
the process being continued until they are filled, when 
they can be folded and are ready for the market. 

Is much time required for this operation f 

No, very little ; while we are counting quickly one. 



S4O PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

two, three, the pins have passed from the hopper, and 
a row has been stuck on the paper. 

W/ia^ can you say of the jnatmfacture of pins in the 
U. SJ 

Until the war of 18 12 with Great Britain, they were|| 
imported. As all commerce with England was then 
interrupted, the price of pins I'ose so rapidly that 
^i.oo per paper was charged, the quality of the article 
being inferior to those now priced at six cents. 

What followed? | 

Some Englishmen met the difficulty, by opening a 
pin manufactory at the State Prison, in Greenwich 
village, now a part of New York City, the convicts 
being employed in the business. 

How did the plan succeed f 

Very well, until peace was declared, when pins were 
imported so cheap that it was thought unnecessary to 
make them in this country. 

Were any attempts afterwards made to manufacture 
them here ? 

Yes ; and many improvements also took place in 
the method of making, as well as sticking them in the 
papers, so that a far better article can now be pro- 
duced, at two-thirds of the lowest price before paid. 

What is the extent of the business in Waterbury, 
Co7in. ? 

One firm there has in operation a machine that will 
turn out two barrels per day, or about 8,000,000 pins. 

How many persotis are required for the work I 

The machinery is now so complete that one person 



1 



PINS. 241 

can perform the labor which formerly required thirty 
operatives. 

How does the little American machine compare with 
those in other countries ? 

There are none to equal it ; so that European manu- 
facturers gladly avail themselves of the improvements 
it has made in the business. 
16 



CHAPTER II. 



How long have needles been used ? 

Probably for centuries, as even the rudest and most 
savage nation had some instrument that answered the 
purpose, made of bone or ivory. The ancient Epyp- 
tians must have used them, as they have been found 
in their tombs. 

Of zvkat were these made f 

They were of bronze. Pliny, a Roman, who lived 
more than 1800 years ago, mentions bronze needles 
being used in his day for sewing and knitting. 

When tvere steel needles fi^'st used? 

They were introduced into England, from Spain 
and Germany, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, and 
first manufactured in London by a German, in 1565 ; 
but the art was kept a secret until 1650, when Chris- 
topher Greening obtained the desired knowledge, and 
established a needle factory not far from London. 

Hozvdid the needles then made compare with those of 
the present day f 

They were very inferior in quality and finish, .«;o 



NEEDLES. 243 

that we would now hardly be able to use what the 
English then considered a very fine article. 

Where are most of the needles now made ? 

At the little village of Redditch, near Birmingham, 
in England. The business there is so extensive, that 
a large portion of Europe, the British colonies, and the 
U. S., are supplied with the article from that estab- 
lishment. 

What can you say of the process required for making 
a needle ? 

Although it seems so small and simple an instru- 
ment, yet great care and skill are necessary to make 
it, as it passes through many operations, and the hands 
of nearly 100 workmen. 

Of what materials are needles made f 
• The finest steel wire is generally used for the purpose, 
although the French take iron wire, which is changed 
into steel while the article is made. 

What is the first step in the process f 

The wire is furnished in coils of various sizes to 
the needle-maker. He takes those of the same quality 
and cuts them into pieces as long as two needles, 
which must now be straightened. 

Hozv is this done ? 

Many thousand are placed within two rings, and 
made red-hot. By means of a smooth file, having two 
grooves, in which the edges of the rings are inserted, 
they are rolled back and forth until the wires, rubbing 
against each other, become perfectly straight. 



244 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What follows f 

The wires are pointed by holding them against 
small grindstones that turn very rapidly, rolling the 
pieces all the time by a peculiar motion of the hand, 
now and then dipping them in cold water, that the 
friction may not heat them too much. 

What can you say of this operation ? 

It proves very injurious to the health of the work- 
men, as few live to be 40 years old. The fine dust 
formed by the grinding enters the lungs, and causes 
a disease, named " Grinder's Asthma." Many of the 
workmen protect themselves by tying a handkerchief 
over their mouths. 

What is the next step ? 

The centre of each wire is flattened, and a groove 
made on both sides, having the place marked for the 
eye of the needle. 

How is this formed? 

It is done by boys, who use small hand-presses for 
the purpose. The needles being arranged in the form 
of a fan are laid on an iron slab. The upper arm of 
the press has a couple of steel cutters or points, 
which are brought down and punch the eyes as 
each needle is brought under them. 

How skilful do these boys become ? 

They can punch a hole in one human hair, and thread 
it with another. 

What next takes place f 

The needles are strung on wires, and the roughness 
in the eye, caused by stamping it out, is filed smooth, 



NEEDLES, 245 

then the wire is divided between the two eyes, when 
the heads are filed into proper shape. 

Is the work now complete ? 

No ; the needles must be hardened. This is done 
by placing them on iron plates made red-hot, then 
plunged into cold water or oil, heated again, but not 
so much as before, and gradually cooled. 

How is it known when they are of the right temper ? 

The workman is guided by the color, which must be 
of a peculiar blue. If any are found badly shaped 
they are straightened by pounding with a small ham- 
mer on an anvil. 

Hotv are the needles cleaned? 

They are laid in heaps upon pieces of canvas, scat- 
tering over them soft soap, oil and emery, then rolling 
and tying them into bundles two or three feet long, 
and three or four inches thick. 

What are done with the btmdles ? 

They are placed in scouring machines, that resemble 
mangles, and rolled back and forth for fifty or sixty 
hours. The friction is so great that the canvas be- 
comes worn in about 8 hours, when a fresh piece is 
substituted for the old one, and more polishing mate- 
rials are added. The very best needles require 7 .or 8 
days for scouring and cleaning. 

What is next done ? 

The needles are placed on tin plates, when little 
girls are employed to turn them so that the heads shall 
all be one way. 



246 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

Is each needle taken tip separately ? 

No ; by a very simple contrivance the work is done 
easily and quickly. 

Explain it. 

A piece of wash-leather is wrapped around the fore- 
finger, and by pressing it against the pile of needles 
all the points that lie in that direction are easily 
caught and turned the other way, and the imperfect 
ones removed. 

What follows ? 

They are placed in rows on metal plates, the eyes, 
projecting over the edge, a piece of red-hot iron is 
then brought near enough to produce a sort of blue 
film, which shows the proper temper, when they are 
ready to be drilled, an operation which removes any 
roughness in the eye. 

How is this done? 

A woman takes a three-sided steel drill, and having 
the needles arranged in the form of a fan, causes them 
to be brought one by one under the action of the drill, 
first on one side then on the other. Much skill and a 
steady hand are required for this part of the work. 

How are the points finished f 

They are placed upon a small revolving stone, and 
afterwards polished on a wheel covered with buff 
leather, having a coating of polishing paste. 

What is the final operation ? 

The needles are divided into parcels of twenty-five 
each, folded in colored papers, and labelled. Those 



NEEDLES. 247 

to be exported are made up into packages, containing 
from 20,000 to 60,000 each. 

Is the process just described the same for all needles ? 

It is for the finer quahties, but in the heavier kinds, 
as those used for leather work, sails, mattresses, book- 
binding, etc., some of the operations are omitted. 



SECTION XIV. 



MONEY. 



CHAPTER I. 

COINS. 

W^at is money ? 

It is a medium of exchange for any articles that are 
bought or sold, and among civilized nations is always 
in the form of gold, silver or bank-notes. 

From what is the word derived? 

Probably from Moneta, the name given by the Ro- 
mans to their silver coin, as it was made in the temple 
of Juno-Moneta. 

What materials have been used for this purpose by 
other nations ? 

In the mounds near the Mississippi valley, speci- 
mens have been found made of coal, bone, shells, 
terra-cotta, pearl, carnelian, agate, native gold, silver, 
lead, iron and copper formed into different shapes, that 
showed more skill than the present race of Indians 
possess. 



MONEY. 249 

What do the latter use? 

Their money is called wampum, and consists of 
strings of small, fresh water shells. The Carthaginians 
used leather, probably on the plan of our bank-notes. 

What did the Chinese use f 

In the 13th century some travellers from Venice 
visited China, and found the money there was made 
from the inner bark of the mulberry tree, cut into 
round pieces and stamped with the mark of the em- 
peror. 

Would it not be easy to counterfeit such money f 

It seems so, but as death was the penalty of such 
a crime it was not probably often attempted. 

What was formerly used in Great Britain ? 

There were two kinds, called " living " and " dead " 
money ; the former consisted of slaves and cattle, 
which were usually sold with the land. The latter 
was metal. 

Was money coined at first f 

In the early history of ancient nations it does not 
appear to have been coined, but was valued according 
to the weight of the metal, as shekels, talents, drachmas, 
etc. The people of Lydia are supposed to have first 
coined money. 

What figures were stamped upon it ? 

Usually those of animals : it was not until after the 
time of Alexander, more than 300 years B.C., that the 
portraits of kings and emperors were allowed to be 
stamped on coin. Caesar was the first ruler to whom 
this privilege was granted. Gold was used in Asia 



250 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Minor for money, as it was found in abundance. But 
copper being more readily obtained in Italy and Sicily, 
bronze was substituted for gold. 

W/ia^ name did the Romans give their Money ? 

They called it " peamia,"" because it was often 
stamped with the figures of cattle, the Latin for which 
is "peczisy 

What can yon say of the shape of the coin f 

It has varied among different nations. Sometimes 
it was in the form of rings, half-circles, diamond- 
shaped, etc., but among all civilized nations it is now 
a flat, circular piece. 

What caused paper money to be first issued in this 
country ? 

The colonists could not produce enough food and 
clothing for their own wants, and were obliged to buy 
goods from England. They soon found they had not 
sufficient money to pay for these things, and yet they 
were obliged to have them ; so paper money was used 
for the payment of their debts at home, which left the 
gold and silver for what they owed abroad. 

Where is money coined? 

At a place called a mint. 

Is money made at a mint for different countries f 

No ; each nation has its own. The principal one in 
the United States is at Philadelphia ; there are be- 
sides this five branch establishments, viz. : at New 
Orleans, La., Charlotte, N. C, Dahlonega, Ga., San 
Francisco and New York city, the last is called an 



I 



MONEY. 25 1 

" Assay Office," the coin being tested there to prove 
its real value. 

What else is done at the Assay Office ? 

At this office also the metal is received, as in 
the other mints, weighed, melted, refined, &c., but 
not coined, being sent to Philadelphia for that pur- 
pose. 

When a person has gold or silver to be coined, what 
must he do ? 

He takes his " bullion'' as it is called, to the treas- 
urer of the mint, who weighs it in his presence, and 
gives him a receipt for the same. 

Does this receipt show the value of the gold ? 

No ; only its weight. The true value of it cannot 
be known until it has been melted and assayed, which 
usually requires two or three days. The person who 
deposited the bullion can then receive the value of it 
in coin, with a statement of how much silver was 
contained in the gold, or gold in the silver, as the _ 
two are often found mixed together. The cost of the 
melting, refining and coining is of course taken from 
the value of the deposit. 

Can a mint be established, as a cotton or woollen fac- 
tory, by any one who wishes to do so ? 

No ; the coining of money is entirely under the su- 
perintendence of government, who appoint the offi- 
cers and workmen. The Secretary of the Treasury 
has control of all the mints in the U. S. 

What are the principal officei's'? 

At each mint there is a director, treasurer, assayer, 



252 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

melter and refiner, and at Philadelphia an engraver 
besides. The wages for those employed in the mints 
is paid by government, the rates being fixed by 
law. 

W/mt is done with the bullion to be coined? 

The first step is called the ^^ parting process^' or 
separating the gold from the silver, if both are in the 
bullion, which is done by applying nitric acid ; this 
dissolves the silver, leaving the gold free. By adding 
common salt to the solution it unites with the acid 
and forms chloride of silver, which can be purified by 
adding sulphuric acid and a preparation of zinc. 

What can yon say of tJiis pure metal ? 

It is too soft to be used, and is therefore mixed 
with a certain amount of copper, making an alloy, 
which renders the metal hard. 

What is done tvith this ? 

While melted, it is poured into moulds which, when 
cooled, are opened, the metal is taken out in the form 
of bars or ingots of the size required for coins. 

What follozvs ? 

These ingots are delivered to the assayer, who tests 
them to prove that they are of the required quality, and 
then given to the treasurer, who keeps the account of 
their value. The ingots then pass into the hands of 
the coiner. 

How large are they ? 

An ingot is a flat bar of the metal about 12 inches 
long, \ of an inch thick, and from f to ij inches 
wide, as seen in the figure. 



MONEY. 253 

What is do7te with an ingot to prepai'e it for coin- 
ing^ 

By means of powerful machinery worked by steam, 
the bars are rolled into strips of the thickness required 
for coin. During this process they are occasionally 
annealed in furnaces prepared for the purpose. 

What is the next step ? 

The strips are made perfectly straight by being 
drawn through a steel gauge similar to that used 
for wire, and then taken to the cutting press. 

How does this work ? 

The press consists of a steel punch fixed firmly in 
a mould, or round hole, of the size required for the 
coin. As the strips pass under this punch, the pow- 
erful machinery causes it to cut out the pieces of 
metal which fall into a box below. They are then 
carefully tested as to their weight. 

Explain how this is done. 

Females are employed for this part of the work. 
Seated before a long table, each one has a balance be- 
fore her and a fiat file. The gold pieces are separately 
tried in the scale. If the weight is too light, they are 
cast aside to be re-melted. If too heavy, they are care- 
fully filed off on the edge. The '' planchets^ as they 
are called, are now ready for the " milling machijie.'' 
What can yon say of this contrivance. 

It is a very simple and ingenious American invention, 
consisting of an upright tube in which the planchets 
are placed one by one, edgewise. By the revolution 
of two wheels the edge of each piece is crowded or 



254 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

pressed up into an even border or rim. They are 
then annealed again, cleaned and polished. 

What is the last thing to be dojte ? 

The planchets are now to be coined— that is, the 
required stamp for each piece of money is to be given. 

How is this done? 

The coining press in use here is after the plan of 
the French lever machine, invented by Thonnelier. 
The pieces of metal are fed by hand into a tube or *| 
hopper in front of the press. A steel feeder below 
takes each one and passes it on to a collar, that holds 
it between the two dies, which make the impression 
on each side of it. * 

What follows f 

By a movement of the machine, the upper die is 
lifted, the feeders bring up a new planchet to be 
coined, which pushes away the one already stamped 
into the box below. 

What is then done with the coins f 

They are very carefully examined by the coiner. 
The defective pieces being taken out, the rest are 
counted, put in bags, and delivered to the treasurer, 
when the work of making money is complete. 

Might not dishonest workmen easily take sotne of the 
gold before or after it is coined f • 

No ; it would be very difficult to do so. In the first 
place, no one is employed in a mint who has not a 
good reputation for honesty. Then as the bullion is 
so carefully weighed when brought there, the treas- 
urer can tell almost to a penny how much coin will be 



MONEY. 255 

made out of each piece after it is melted and purified. 
As the metal passes through each officer's hands, he 
notices carefully if the required amount is produced, 
and if not, the reason would be soon detected. 

W/ia;( is done with every person employed in the 
mint ? 

They are all examined before leaving at night to see 
if they have any of the metal about them. 

Is nofie of the gold or silver lost or waited whiU 
being formed into money / 

Of course some fine dust and small pieces become 
absorbed in the vessels used, or mix with the ashes, etc 

Can this be obtained again f 

Yes ; by melting and burning the metal vessels and 
wooden tables it is procured. A recent simple inven- 
tion, called a " sweep-washing machine," accomplishes 
the work more readily and thoroughly, preventing 
much of the former waste of material, so that the 
sweepings do not produce more than seven cents' 
worth of precious metal out of every pound. For- 
merly from 50 cents to ^i was the value obtained 
from the same quantity. 



256 PRACTICAL SCIENCK. 



CHAPTER IT. 



PAPER MONEY. 



What do we find used for money besides gold and 
silver ? 

Among civilized nations, bank-notes or paper money 
is often substituted for these pecious metals. 

Is the paper in itself worth as much as the gold f 

By no means. But, by law, it is allowed to repre-' 
sent the value of as many dollars in specie as are 
marked upon the face of it. 

Could not any one who mtderstafids how to mak^ 
bank-note paper, prodtice as much of it as he chooses ^ 
and use it for money ? 

Of course not ; as that would be counterfeiting, and 
the laws are very severe for such an offence, although 
wicked persons sometimes attempt it. 

How then can it be laiufnlly made and used? 

This is the business of bankers, who are obliged 
to obtain the permission of government to open a 
bank, when it is said to be chartered. 



I 



PAPER MONEY. 25/ 

What is a Charter? 

It is a written paper, giving an individual or a com- 
pany certain privileges, which they could not lawfully 
have without it. Every bank must have a charter 
before commencing business. 

What is the origin of the term Batik ? 

The Jews were the first money-lenders of. whom we 
have any account. They were accustomed to sit on 
benches or banks, as they were sometimes called, in 
the market-places of Italian towns, to transact their 
business. Hence the name Bank has since been given 
to all places where money is loaned or borrowed. 

How many kind of banks can you mention ? 

There are three principal kinds, viz., Banks of Dis- 
count, Deposit and Circulation. 

How do they differ ? 

At a Bank of Discount persons can borrow money 
and give in return their note, promising to pay the 
sum with interest at a certain time. 

If the borrower should fail to do so, what is the con- 
sequence ? 

Then some of his property is taken as payment, or 
another person who signed the note with him must 
pay the full amount. Many who " go security," as it 
is called, in this way, for their friends, are obliged to 
sacrifice all their property, and "fail" in consequence. 

What is a Batik of Deposit ? 

Money is put there for safe keeping, the bankers 
paying interest for the same. This can be drawn 
out at any time. If the bank should not be able to 
17 



258 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

pay out money when called for, they are said to 
" suspend payment," a-nd have, of course, failed. 
This often happens. 

Do the depositors then lose all their money ? 

Not always. The bankers are sometimes able to 
pay a part of their debts ; usually so many cents on a 
dollar. 

What is a Bank of Circulation f 

This is usually combined with the other two. The 
bankers have their own paper money made, and send 
it out as payment for debts. The general law is that 
when any of these bills are brought to the bank that 
issues it, the holder can demand coin for the same ; 
although sometimes there may be exceptions to the 
rule. -• 

Where is this paper money made ? 

Usually there is a special bank-note manufactory, 
that at 50 Wall street, New York city, baing the princi- 
pal one in this country. There the beautiful engraving 
seen on paper money is executed, each different bill 
requiring peculiar marks and figures to distinguish it 
from all other notes. 

Is the paper itself made like that used for other pur- 
poses ? 

It varies somewhat. The best materials are em- 
ployed, and great care required, to produce a strong, 
well-finished article. A peculiar kind of shrub, grow- 
ing in the marshes of the Mississippi river, is found 
well adapted for the purpose. 



I 



PAPER MONEY. 259 

Whe7t the engravings are stamped on the paper is the 
work complete ? 

No ; the bill must also be printed. By examining 
any piece of paper money you will see how much 
there is on each one, from lo cents up to the largest 
note that is issued. 

Why is it necessary to have so many different figures , 
words, etc., on every billf 

It is done to prevent counterfeiting ; for there are 
many little delicate marks that would not be noticed 
without very careful examination, and these are all 
necessary to make a " good bill." 

What is the last thing to be done ? 

Every piece must be signed by the President or 
Cashier of the bank that issues the money ; until 
this is done the bill is worthless. It is also num- 
bered. This shows how many bills of that particular 
value have, up to that time, been issued. 

By whom is the printing and engraving done ? 

Very honest and 'skilful persons are employed. 
There is, of course, a separate press for every bill. 
The notes are stamped on very large sheets, each of 
which will produce a certain number. 

How can it be known if any are taken ? 

An exact account' is kept of every sheet that is 
printed. The bills being cut from it are again 
counted, tied in bundles of 50, 100, or more, in each, 
and deposited in a safe until ready to be sent to the 
banks for signature. 



I 



260 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

W/iat is the result of this great care f 

In making up the account of stamped bills, out of 
hundreds of thousands of dollars worth, the error sel- 
dom amounts to more than a few dollars, the cause of 
which is generally detected. 



SECTION XV. 



TELEGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER 1. 

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 

WAat is the greatest invention ever made f 

This is a difficult question to answer. But it is 
generally considered that printing, the mariner's com* 
pass, steam, and the electric telegraph, have benefited 
mankind more than any others. Each has its own 
peculiar advantages, so that it is not easy to give one 
the preference over the rest. 

What do we know regarding the tatter ? 

We are certain that as now used it is the greatest 
invention of modern times. 

What is the meaning of the word telegraph ? 

It is derived from two Greek words, and means, 
*• To write afar." It includes the various methods of 
Communicating by signals. 

How was this done by the ancients f 

From the earliest times signals have been given by 



262 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

means of fires kindled upon high hills, being visible 
by the light at night and smoke by day. 

Were special messages coniinuiiicated in this way ? 

They were. By previous arrangement, warnings of 
various kinds became known almost instantaneously 
for miles around. 

What skill did the Romans show in this matter ? 

Their generals were able to spell out many words 
by using fires made of different substances. 

What was the custom of the American Indians ? 

They had regular stations established over our* 
Western country for these signals. And eveh as 
recently as the time of Fremont, they used this 
method to give warning of his approach through their 
country. 

Have any other signals been used f 

Various ingenious methods have been contrived to 
communicate readily between places at a distance. 
Many of these were operated by the use of different 
pieces of wood, each of which represented a letter or 
word. The message being thus made known from 
some elevated point, was repeated at the next station, 
and thus sent on through the whole line. 

How are telegraphic communications made at sea f 

Flags of various colors have long been used, each 
of whch indicates a word or sentence. By naval sig- 
nals, 400 different sentences can be communicated 
from ship to ship by varying the combination of two • 
revolving crosses. 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 263 

W/ia^ tvas the great objection to all these methods f 

They could only be used in elevated places and within 
certain limits. 

Had the idea of telegraphing by means of electricity 
ever beeit conceived before it was filially brought into nse ? 

It had to some extent, and experiments were made 
to that effect. Although it was known in 1729 that 
a shock of electricity could be sent some distance 
through conducting wires very rapidly, yet it was not 
until later, that any practical tests were made of it 

Why was this f 

Because the attention of persons seemed at first di- 
rected to the more visible effects of electricity pro- 
duced by the Leyden jar — an invention which revealed 
that wonderful agent — such as communicating a shock 
to several persons at once, setting fire to alcohol by a 
charge through wires under water, etc. 

By whom was this done ? 

By Franklin, in 1748, across the Schuylkill river. 
He also proved, about the same time, that lightning 
and electricity were identical. 

How was the electricity then-produced '? 
" It was developed by friction, and with each dis- 
charge from the jar, ceased to act until another was 
produced, so that it was not then adapted for making 
signals, as a constant current is required to accom- 
plish this. 

What is a Leyden jar f 

It is a glass vessel, coated within and without, for 
about two-thirds of its depth, with tin-foil. 



264 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

IVky i$ the tipper part left free ? 

So that the electric fluid may not be conducted 
from one side to the other. Through the cover a 
metallic rod passes, until it reaches the inner coating, 
and rises two or three inches above the jar. The 
electricity is carried along this rod, while the outer 
coating communicates with the ground. 

How may the quantity of this fluid be increased'? 

By connecting several Leyden jars together, when 
all act as if they formed but one. This combination 
is called an electrical battery. 

What invention opened the way for the present electric 
telegraph ? 

It was the discovery of the Voltaic Pile in 1800. 

Will you describe it ? 

This is formed by placing plates of copper and zinc 
alternately above each other, separating each pair by 
a piece of paper or cloth moistened with salt or acid 
water. 

Should the pile end with the same metal as that with 
which it commenced f 

No ; if it began with copper, the pile must termi- 
nate with zinc, otherwise copper must be at the top. 

Can any other metals be used besides those just men- 
tioned ? 

The same result may be attained on condition that 
one of the metals will be more easily oxidated or dis- 
solved in an acid than the other. Thus copper and 
silver may be used, also silver and gold, or silver and 
platina. 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 265 

What is the object of the voltaic pile ? 

By means of it a greater quantity of electricity can 
be obtained and used for a longer time than from the 
Leyden jar. 

What simple experiment proves that electricity can be 
produced in this way ? 

If a silver dollar is placed on the tongue, and a 
piece of zinc beneath it, the two edges being made to 
touch each other, electricity will pass from the zinC to 
the silver. 

How is this known ? 

The person will perceive it by a peculiar metallic 
taste, also a slight flash of light may be seen, either in 
a dark room or with the eyes nearly closed. 

When was tJie voltaic pile applied to telegraphing? 

In 1809 it was used in connection with an ingenious 
machine, and messages could be sent by it for a dis- 
tance of at least 3,000 feet. 

What objection to its use ? 

Sufficient electricity could not be obtained for com- 
munications at a great distance, without using an in- 
convenient number of plates. 

What was the next step towards a successful result ? 

The discovery of the principles of electro-magnet- 
ism, made by Oersted, of Copenhagen, in 1819 ; but 
the difficulty still seemed to be to obtain sufficient 
power in the electricity to make it work equally at any 
distance. 

What discovery zvas made a few years later ? 

Prof. Henry, of Albany, after many experiments 



266 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

made in 1828 and 1830, proved that any amount of 
electricity could be obtained and used for the greatest 
distance required. 

Explain the method to be followed ? 

An iron bar, either straight or bent in the form of 
the letter U, was wound around with many layers 
of covered wire, then applying it to the battery, and 
dipping the ends of each wire in a cup of mercury, and 
the two poles of the battery in the same, great magnetic 
force was acquired, sufficient for all telegraphic pur- 
poses. 

Was the whole science of telegraphing now complete ? 

No ; the principle was known, but great ingenuity 
was still required to apply it successfully. 

What lesson may zve learn from this? 

We learn that great inventions are not made sud- 
denly, by chance or mere good fortune ; they are the 
result of patient, persevering thought and experiment 
Also that one person alone seldom brings them to 
perfection. 

What then is necessary? 

One man may have an idea of a new invention, 
and bring it out in a rough, unfinished form. An- 
other person will make some improvements in it ; a 
third still more, until at last, after many experiments 
by different men, the work is brought to perfection. 
Almost every thing we see made by art proves this, 
as we have already learned in different parts of this 
book. 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 26/ 

Wko Was the first person to apply the electric princu 
pie, as just described, to telegraphing f 

This honor is due to Baron Schilling, of St. Peters- 
burg. 

In what way was it done f 

He used for this purpose magnetic needles, each of 
which corresponded to a letter or figure. As the elec- 
tric current passed through a wire near these needles, 
their position was changed ; each needle had its own 
wire covered with silk to prevent the electricity pass- 
ing into other substances. 

What improvement did the Baron make in this f_ 

He gradually diminished the number of needles 
until there was but one. 

What happened at this time f 

SchilHng died, and it is not known how far his in- 
vention succeeded ; but it prepared the way for greater 
progress in the science of electricity. 

When was the first telegraph feally established? 

It was made in 1836, being invented by Prof. Stein- 
heil, of Munich, and adopted the next year by the gov- 
ernment of Bavaria. 

What was its extent ? 

It was 12 miles in length, and used but one wire. 

How were the signals given ? . 

They were made by bells of different tones, which 
could be soon understood by the operator. At the 
same time the bells sounded, lines and dots, to indicate 
letters, were marked on a slip of paper, similar to the 
plan adopted by Prof. Morse, the American inventor. 



268 PRACTICAL SCI£NCE. 

What happened the next year ? 

In 1837 several telegraphs were produced in differ- 
ent countries by various inventors, but that of Prof. 
S. F. B. Morse has been generally considered the 
most simple and useful. 

Where was it first exhibited f 

At the University of New York, in 1837. Fo^* ^^e 
years previous Prof. Morse had made many experi- 
ments before it was brought into working condition, 
and for three years after this time he was still adding 
improvements. 

When did he obtaiit a patent for his invention f 

In 1840 ; but it was not until May 27, 1844, that it 
was practically used. The first message was sent 
from Washington to Baltimore, causing, of course, 
great interest and excitement. 

What was first tised for this purpose f 

An insulated wire, that is, one covered with silk or 
cotton thread. This was buried in a lead pipe under 
ground, but as this failed, another was placed on posts 
and substituted for it, which answered the end pro- 
posed. 

How was the electricity obtained f 

It was furnished by a galvanic battery, and commu- 
nicated through the telegraph wire to the electro- 
magnet at the receiving station. 

What took place there ? 

A pen or pencil, connected with the magnet, made 
the dots or marks upon a moving slip of paper when 
the electricity was excited. A sharp point was after- 



V 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 269 

wards used instead of the pencil. The paper is moved 
regularly by clock-work. 

Why was this method preferred to others ? 

Because but one wire was used, and- the plan of lines 
and dots for letters, figures and signs was the simplest 
that had then been invented. 

Is the recording instrument now generally itsed by 
the Morse telegraph f 

In many places it is dispensed with. The operator 
trusts entirely to the peculiar clicking sound made by 
the instrument, which guides him in receiving the 
message. 

What advantage in this f 

It saves the expense of an extra assistant to read 
the dispatch to the copyist as it is received. The 
operator now writes it down as he hears the sounds. 

Are not more mistakes 7nade in this way ? 

No ; it has been found that fewer errors are com- 
mitted than by the former method of reading from 
the dotted paper. 



270 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER II. 



TELEGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS. 



You said the electricity was obtained from a galvanic 
battery. Will you describe it ? 

There are different kinds of batteries, but the gen- 
eral principle in all is the same. That used for tele- 
graphing is called Groves' Battery, and is a very pow- 
erful instrument. 

How is it made ? 

It consists of several cups, or cells, joined together. 
Each is formed of a cylinder of zinc, coated with 
mercury. Within this is a cup of unglazed clay. 
Both are placed in a glass cup. 

How are they joined together f 

A piece of zinc passes from one cup to the next, 
and serves to carry the electricity. A strip of plating 
also passes from the zinc cups, and dips into the inner 
one of clay. 

How is the battery prepared for use, or charged, as it 
is called ? 

This is done by filling the clay cup with nitric 



I 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 2/1 

acid, while sulphuric acid, diluted with water, fills the 
space between the two cups. 

Will you explain on what principle the electricity is 
produced by this battery f 

We have before stated that if two different metals 
have some wet cloth or paper between them, when 
the two edges meet the electricity will pass from one 
to the other. This is exactly what takes place in the 
case of the battery described. 

What is the object of the acids used? 

As they act upon the metals of the cups, the elec- 
tricity is excited, and passes in a continual circuit 
from the positive to the negative, and from the nega- 
tive to the positive poles of the battery, and will con- 
tinue to do this, if the different plates are connected, 
for a long time. 

What are positive and negative poles ? 

The ends of the wires connecting the two metals 
are called the poles of the battery. That which 
comes from the wire most powerfully acted upon is 
called the positive, and the other the negative pole. 

Is there electricity in everything f 

All things in nature possess it, but in different 
degrees. Those giving out or manifesting the great- 
est quantity are called positive, and such as produce 
but little electricity when excited are called negative 
electrics. 

Give some example. 

It has been found that oxygen, chlorine and iodine, 
and generally all the acids, possess negative elec- 



2/2 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

tricity ; while hydrogen, the metals and alkalies, are 
naturally positive. 

WJiat are some of the effects produced by electricity ? 

It gives out sparks and very brilliant flashes of 
light ; causes gunpowder to explode, will fuse metals, 
decompose water — that is, separate it into the gases 
of which it is composed. 

HozO can the brightest artificial light be producedf 

By putting pieces of charcoal on the wires of "a 
powerful battery and bringing them together. 

Is there much heat with the light ? 

The greatest heat ever obtained by man comes 
from the galvanic battery, which is known by the ef- 
fects produced. 

Mention some of them. 

The metals are easily melted. Slate, lime, sulphur, 
magnesia and quartz are turned to liquids ; and dia- 
mond, the hardest of precious stones, melts, boils, and 
is changed into coal. 

What kind of ivire is used on telegraphic lines ? 

Iron wire is found to be the most serviceable. 
Copper, however, is a better conductor of the elec- 
tricity, but is so liable to break, besides being easily 
affected by the temperature, that it is seldom used, 
except on important lines under water. 

Hozu are the wires laid in Europe and Asia ? 

In some cases they are buried in the ground instead 
of being supported on posts. 

Hozv are they prepaj^ed for this ptirpose ? 

The wire is insulated, that is, covered, so as to pre- 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 273 

vent the electric fluid from passing into other sub- 
stances, by a coating of gutta-percha, then laid in 
pipes of lead or clay, or in wooden boxes preserved 
by saturating the wood with sulphate of copper or 
chloride of zinc. 

W/zat can you say of this plan 'i 

Some have worked well for years, but when they 
fail it is very difficult, as well as expensive, to find the 
defective places. 

How are the wires insulated when raised on posts f 

Various methods have been adopted. A very ex- 
cellent one is that of a glass cup fitting over the 
wooden pin. A cover of wood saturated, like the 
pin, with coal tar and pitch, is placed over the glass, 
entirely covering it, so that it is always dry and the 
wire is perfectly insulated. 

What has since been used instead of glass ? 

In the Northern States hard rubber insulators have 
been very successfully applied. 

How are the wires laid on the posts ? 

In forests they pass loosely through the supports, 
so that if a tree should fall upon them they may not 
be broken — but in open places the wire is fastened to 
each post. 

Are the telegraphic lines easily laidf 

No ; great care and labor are required. The land 
must first be surveyed, so as to find the shortest dis- 
tance between the stations. The ground is then ex- 
amined, that a firm foundation for the posts may be 
secured. As in building railroads, these and other 



274 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

points are always observed. The telegraphic wires 
are frequently erected on the railway lines. 

How near each other are the posts placed f 

They are from 50 to 100 feet apart, and about 20 
feet from the ground. 

How rapidly does the electric current travel? 

From experiments it appears to be about 15,400 
miles per second. 

Over hozv many miles does the telegraphic line pass f 

It is difficult to estimate exactly, as additions are 
being constantly made. In i860 there were over 
50,000 miles in operation. 

How was this increased? 

The next year a great addition was made by the 
completion of the line from St. Louis to San Francisco, 
thence to Oregon, which was opened Oct. 25, 1861. 

How do the lines in other countries compare with 
those in America ? 

Thus far the United States takes the lead. Be- 
sides the European countries, we find the telegraph 
in Australia, Asiatic Turkey, India, China and Japan. 

What have the Russians attempted ? 

They proposed extending a very important line 
from Moscow to the Pacific Ocean. This will con- 
nect Eastern Asia with the countries of Europe, and 
Behring's Straits with the American Continent. The 
work has not yet commenced. 

Where is the principal department for telegraph 
business in this country ? 

It is located in a very large building in New York 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 2/5 

city. A great many lines meet here, and extend over 
different parts of the U. S. 

Will you describe this establishment ? 

The basement serves as a store-room, where all the 
instruments and materials used on the lines are kept 
on hand, to be ready when needed. 

What is done on the first floor f 

This department is for the reception of messages. 
In the rear is the operating room of the American 
division, containing 25 instruments, each arranged on 
its own table. The wires from the different lines 
enter in the rear of the room and pass on to a "switch!' 

What is the object of the switch ? 

It is so arranged that any instrument in the room 
may be instantly placed in connection with either of 
the lines entering the office by means of wires that 
pass from the "switch'' to each instrument. 

What are found in the second and third stories ? 

The second is occupied by the officers of the com- 
pany, and the third serves as the operating rooms of 
the New York, Erie & Buffalo lines. The rooms for 
the Associated Newspaper Companies are on the 
fourth floor. 

For what is the fifth story reserved f 

This is the battery room. Here are nearly 400 
cups of Grove's battery, which supply all the lines 
with the electric current. 

What other applications of the telegraph have been 
made in different places ? 

It is used in a system of fire alarms, and so con- 



2/6 ~ PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

nected with the bells that they can strike at the first 
signal the number of the district and station where 
the fire is discovered. It also indicates the exact 
noon by a single stroke upon the bell of the Old 
South Church, the oldest building of its kind in Bos- 
ton. 

IV/ia^ is the arrangement in London ? 

By a current of electricity from the Royal Observa- 
tory, a large ball is made to drop exactly at noon, 
from a pole erected in the Strand. The same thing 
takes place from Nelson's Monument, in Edinburgh. 
In Paris, a cannon is fired upon a similar plan. 

Caji yon mention any other nses made of it ? 

Private telegraphs are often found in large estab- 
lishments, communicating from the work-shops to the 
offices, and between the halls of legislation and print- 
ing rooms, so that speeches and important reports can 
be printed, even while delivered. 

What is one of the most recent improvevieiits in tele- 
grapJiing ? 

Last year, 1875, M. La Cour, the assistant Director 
of the Copenhagen Physical Observatory, laid before 
the Telegraphic Conference, at St. Petersburg, a new 
invention in this wonderful science. 

Exphxin it. 

He proved that it was possible to send several mes- 
sages at one time, by a single wire, between two sta- 
tions, so that one would not interfere with the others. 

Hozv zvas lie led to this discovery ? 

While making experiments in electricity, he found 



THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 277 

that the current was transmitted from place to place 
by means of waves, similar to those of sound. 

What followed f 

He arranged a series of tuning forks, each pitched 
to a certain note, and connected with electro- magnets, 
so that when a particular current passes through one 
of the tuning forks, it will not interfere with other 
currents sent through differently tuned forks, all of 
which are transmitted by the same wire. 

Has it been adopted to any extent ? 

Yes ; it is in daily use on many lines in this coun- 
try and elsewhere, and is called the duplex system. 

VVkeit we speak of a current of electricity sent along 
the Line, what do we mean f 

The word current is used as the most convenient 
term to express the action of electricity. But in real- 
ity there is nothing whatever passing along the wire. 
As we have said, it is merely by waves that electricity 
is transmitted. 

Will you illustrate this ? 

Thus, if by the action of the electrical machine, a 
wave is put in motion at Boston, the power of the 
fluid is such, that all the intervening waves between 
that city and the station where the message is receiv- 
ed, are instantaneously moved. This vibration being 
perceived, indicates the "passage of the currentl' as it 
is called. 



2/8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER III. 

SUB-MARINE TELEGRAPH. 

WAat is a sub-marine telegraph ? 

It is a telegraph under the water. 

When was such an undertaking first proposedf 

In 1797, Don Francisco Salva projected a tele- 
graph between Barcelona and Palma, in the island of 
Majorca, but probably with little success, as we do 
not hear of such an attempt again until 1839. 
What was then done ? 

Experiments were made in India, by Dr. O'Shaugh- 
nessy, who insulated his wires by covering them with 
tarred yarn, which he enclosed in split rattan, and 
again covered this with tarred yarn. 

What attempt was made by Prof. Morse ? 

in Oct., 1842, he laid a copper wire insulated by a 
covering of hempen thread, coated with pitch-tar and 
India rubber, between Governor's Island and the Bat- 
tery, New York. 

Did it prove a success ? 

Communications began to be received the day after 



StrB-MARtNE TELEGRAfM. 279 

the wire was laid, but unfortunately it became entan- 
gled in the anchor of a vessel getting under weigh, 
a large part of which was taken by the sailors on board, 

When was attother attempt made ? 

The next year, Samuel Colt laid a sub-marine cable 
from Coney and Fire Islands to the harbor of New 
York, which was successfully operated. 

How was it made ? 

It was coated with a preparation of cotton, beeswajt 
and asphaltum, the whole being enclosed in a lead 
pipe. Mr. Colt also laid another cable from the Mer- 
chants' Exchange to the mouth of the harbor, which 
proved both useful and successful. 

When Was gutta-peVcha first employed as a coating 
for the cable ? 

It was probably first applied in laying the telegraph 
wire across the Rhine, from Dentz to Cologne, the 
distance being only half a mile. 

What is the greatest attempt ever made in this de- 
paftment of science f 

That of connecting the Old World with the New,, 
by a cable spanning the Atlantic Ocean, which was 
commenced in 1857, and completed Aug. 5, 1858. 

To whom are we indebted for this undertaking ? 

This honor is due to Cyrus W. Field. His success 
was achieved only after making many experiments, 
and overcoming great difficulties. 

What led him to think the work could be accom^ 
pushed ? 

Various experiments had been successfully made in 



280 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

1856, by sending distinct signals through connected 
coils of wire, coated with gutta-percha ; the length 
being over 2,000 miles. 

Was the result the same when the cable was placed 
under water f 

No ; a great difference was experienced. That 
which at first was a simple and constant conductor of 
electricity, became, when submerged, of the nature of 
a Leyden jar, which we have already described. 

How did the cable resemble the jar f 

The gutta percha corresponded to the glass, the in- 
ner wire to the interior coating, and the iron covering 
of the wire to the outer surface of the jar. 

What was it thenfonnd necessary to do ? 

The cable must be charged through its whole length 
before any effect could be perceived. 

When the first Atlantic cable was put in operation^ 
what was the result f 

The current was found to be so weak, that with 
great difficulty the signals were perceived, when sent 
from Valentia, in Ireland, to Newfoundland. 

What may have been the cause of this ? 

It was partling owing to a defect in the cable near 
the shore of Ireland, which was injured by handling 
and exposure to the sun, as well as in laying it. 

How many messages were sent ? 

From Aug. 13th to Sept. ist, 129 messages passed 
from Valentia to Newfoundland, and from Aug. loth, 
271 in the other direction. 



SUB-MARINE TELEGRAPH. 28 1 

Were the signals given as rapidly then as now ? 

No ; for the message sent by Queen Victoria to the 
President of the United States, consisting of 99 words, 
occupied 6y minutes in its transmission. The length 
of time required for a despatch often varied, and being 
frequently unintelligible required to be repeated many 
times. 

When it was found the cable zvoiild not work, what 
was done ? 

Every effort was made to ascertain the cause of the 
defect. Skilful and learned men, with powerful bat- 
teries, were employed for this purpose. 

What was the result of their efforts ? 

They proved that the defect must be in the cable, 
within 300 miles of Valentia, but that the wire had not 
parted in any place, as imperfect signals were still re- 
ceived, and therefore concluded that the fault was in 
the cable itself, and that it had been injured in some 
way. 

Could the defect he remedied f 

This was impossible, as the cable would break if 
raised from so great a depth in the water ; it was 
therefore necessary to abandon this great undertaking, 
which caused much disappointment, especially to those 
who had invested large sums of money in it. 

What was the cost of the first Atlantic cable ? 

It was estimated at ^1,834,500. 

How are sub-marine cables made ? 

A very common method at first adopted, and still 
in use, was to have a conducting wire pass through 



282 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

the centre, this being formed of copper wires twisted 
together so as to make the whole very firm and 
strong. 

How was this insulated? 

By using " Chatterston's Composition," as it is 
called, which consists of a mixture of gutta-percha, 
wood-tar and resin. 

Why was this preferred to gutta-percha alone ? 

Because it would adhere firmly to the wires, while 
gutta-percha, as well as other substances, soon peeled 
off. 

What was used besides the " Composition " ? 

Over a thick covering of this material were placed 
several layers of hardened caoutchouc alone, or alter- 
nating with the " Composition " above mentioned. 

How was the cable protected from blows and acci- 
dents ? 

It was covered with tarred hemp, then with many 
steel wires, thus completing the work. 

CaJt yo2i inentio7i any other method adopted ? 

A more simple plan is now followed. The conductor 
is made of a single wire cable, formed of fine smaller 
wires, so twisted together that if one should break the 
communication is not thereby interrupted. 

What can you say of its weight ? 

This is found to be very heavy. Recently a cable 
much lighter has been made, but it seems to be sooner 
corroded by the action of the sea. 

Is the cable complete on leaving the factory ? 

No ; only the conductor with the insulators are 



SUB-MARINE TELEGRAPH. 283 

made there. The outer coverings of hemp and steel 
are added at the port of embarkation. 

W/ta^ is done while the cable is being made ? 

It must be constantly tested, to see if the electric 
current works without interruption. Should there be 
any irregularity it proves that the insulating covering 
has broken, and the electricity is passing through an 
aperture into the outer wires. 

How is the defect remedied? 

By cutting the metal covering and joining the bro- 
ken part. When completed, the cable is tested 
through its entire length ; an operation which requires 
great skill and care. 

What was done before laying the first Atlantic 
cable ? 

The bottom of the ocean was thoroughly examined 
to find out the best route. The result proved that 
from Newfoundland to Ireland there was an almost 
level bank, as if Nature has prepared it expressly for 
the purpose. The cable was laid upon this bank, 
which has since been called the " Telegraphic Plateau.." 

How was the work done ? 

Two large vessels, one from the U. S., called the 
" Niagara," and the other from Ireland, the " Aga- 
memnon," were to carry the cable, each having half of 
it. Both vessels sailed from their ports at the same 
time, so as to meet in mid-ocean, where the wire 
could be joined. 

Was not the weight of it very great ? 

Yes ; that of the one we are describing averaged 



284 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

about 2,200 lbs. to the mile ; but this formed, of 
course, the only cargo of the vessel. To make up 
for this ballast, as it was paid out, an equal weight of 
water replaced it. 

How is the cable laid f 

It is packed in the hold of the vessel, being rolled 
upon cylinders. When the work begins, the wire 
passes over two very strong cast-iron wheels, turning 
three times around them ; from these it is carefully 
paid out into the ocean by passing over an iron roller 
placed at the stern of the vessel. 

What regulates the movement of the cable ? 

There are powerful brakes, or checks, which pre- 
vent the wire from passing out very rapidly. To 
avoid too much heat from friction, twenty men are 
constantly employed in pouring water on the wheels 
and brakes. 

If the cable is not laid regularly, what is the result ? 

Much trouble follows : for should it pass out too 
quickly, it will become tangled and knotted in the 
sea, and if too slowly, the strain upon the part already 
laid will be so great that the cable breaks. The 
tossing of the vessel, as well as winds and waves, add 
much to the difficulty experienced in the work. 

Is there any communication between the ship and 
land during the operation f 

Yes; constant signals pass and re-pass, proving if 
the cable continues in working condition. 

How are the ends of the cable Jinited in mid-ocean ? 

The outer wires are laid back, while the copper 



SUB-MARINE TELEGRAPH. 285 

ones of each end are firmly twisted and soldered 
together. Being placed in an iron box, a quantity of 
melted gutta-percha is poured over the parts united. 
The box is then closely sealed and soldered, when it 
can be let down into the bed of the ocean. 

Why are other vessels sent with the one that carries 
the cable f 

They accompany the ship to direct her course* 
As the needle of the compass is so easily affected by 
the electric current, it would not indicate her true posi- 
tion, and must, therefore, be carried by the attending 
vessels. 

After the failure of the first Atlantic cable, was 
another attempt made f 

Not immediately ; as it was difficult to find persons 
who would risk their money in such an Uncertain and 
expensive enterprise. Learned men, however, were 
carefully studying the science of electro-magnetism, 
that the next application of it to telegraphing might 
prove a success. 

What was the result f 

Another cable was made, and, in July, 1865, a 
steamship, " The Great Eastern," was chartered to 
lay the whole of it. 

Did this prove a success f 

At first the work progressed very well, but at 
length violent storms arose, tossing the monster ship 
like a feather, and seriously injuring the work. 
Although the attending ships did all in their power to 



286 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

aid the vessel, the strain upon the cable was too great, 
and it parted, sinking into the bed of the ocean. 

What followed f 

Notwithstanding the failure of the second enter" 
prise, a third attempt was made, and, in July, 1866, 
the "Great Eastern " was again employed to carry on 
the work. 

What ivas the result? 

The weather being very favorable, the cable was suc- 
cessfully laid, causing great joy throughout the world. 

Was the second cable ever found ? 

Yes ; as the " Great Eastern " returned to England, 
she succeeded in fishing it up from the bed of the sea, 
united the broken parts, and completed the work of 
laying it. 

Are these the only telegraphic lines between America 
and Europe ? 

A third cable has since been laid by the French 
nation. The Emperor Napoleon used it first, sending 
his congratulations to President Grant. Two more 
have since been added. 

Is it probable that electricity can be applied to any 
other purposes than those now in use ? 

There are doubtless many other ways of applying it, 
as new methods are being constantly discovered, 
Attempts are now being made to substitute it for 
steam in the working of machinery, etc. Should sue- 
cess follow these efforts, wonders in science and art 
will doubtless be revealed, of which we have never 
dreamed. 



SUB-MARINE TELEGRAPH. 2^7 

What objection to this plan ? 

The materials for producing electricity are so much 
more expensive than water and coal, by which steam 
is generated, that economy, the chief point to be con- 
sidered, would give the preference to steam, other 
things being equal. 

What method has been recently devised in connection 
with this science ? 

The " Quadruplex System," as it is called, has 
been put in operation, within a few months, on the 
Western Union Telegraph Co.'s linesj by which four 
messages can be sent over a single wire at the same 
time. 

Can you mention any other f 

By the " Telephone System " music is transmitted 
by telegraph : and it is confidently expected that eight 
-or more messages may be sent simultaneously by this 
method. 

What machines are now run by electricity ? 

Sewing machines, small lathes, organs, and others 
by which very light work is done. 



288 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE TELEPHONE. 



IVfiait other great invent ion can you mention? 

The telephone. 

What is the meaning of the word f 

It means " To speak from far." 

When was it invented f 

It was given to the public in 1877, being previously 
exhibited at our Centennial. 

Who was the inventor f 

The merit of this wonderful invention is probably- 
due to Elisha Gray, of Chicago, although another 
American, A. G. Bell, who has made many improve- 
ments in it, also claims the honor. 

How is it made f 

There are many different instruments called Tele- 
phones, all on the same general principle. 
Will you describe one? 

It consists of a trumpet-shaped tube, containing a 
very delicate membrane, resembling the drum of the 



I 



THE TELEPHONE. 289 

Of what use is this membrane ? 

The human voice, or any sound falling upon it, 
causes vibrations, which are carried by two wires 
connected with it to an instrument at the other end, 
exactly like the one already described. 

Of what use is this second instrtiment ? 

It is the receiver, and is held to the ear by the per- 
son to whom a message is sent. 

Can a ielepho7ie both send a7td receive the same sotcnd? 

The one invented by Mr. Gray was only a trans- 
mitter, but Mr. Bell improved it, so that one instru- 
ment will answer both purposes. 

What is also added to complete this Telephone ? 

A piece of wire is coiled around a bar of soft iron, 
which has been magnetized ; through this a current 
of electricity is passed, causing the wire to carry the 
message sent. 

What is this called f 

It is called an electro-magnet. 

What may be heard by the Telephone? 

The words uttered at one end of the instrument 
may be heard as distinctly at the other as if the per- 
son were seated by your side. 

Catt any other sounds be sent by the Telephone ? 

Yes; both vocal and instrumental music. 

Is the one Just described generally in use? 

It is frequently used; but many recent improve- 
ments have been made, by which the instrument is 
more simple in form, and at the same time more pow- 
erful in its effects. 

19 



290 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

To whom are we mdebted for these improvements f 
To Mr. Thomas A. Edison, of Menlo Park, N. J. * 

* For the encouragement of voting students we give a 
little sketch of Mr. Edison's early life, condensed from the 
^^ Popular Science Monthly.^' Thomas A. Edison was born in 
Ohio, in 1847. He had the misfortune to lose his mother when 
15 years old. She was a very gifted and highly educated lady, 
and gave her son all the instruction he ever received. While 
still quite young he began to earn his own living as train-boy, 
hiring two or three other boys as assistants, which gave him 
more leisure to gratify his taste for reading. Some works upon 
chemistry having fallen in his hands, he became much interested 
in the subject, and procured a few chemicals, with which he 
made experiments ; some of them were quite successful. He 
attempted a telegraphic instrument, Using for this purpose some 
wire from the stove, wrapjjed with rags. Having no battery, he 
tried to obtain the electricity lie needed from the cat's back ; 
but as there was not sufficient for the purpose, he was obliged 
to give up the attempt. A fortunate incident soon gave him 
the opportunity of becoming a telegraph operator. While 
.still a train-boy, as the cars were one day coming into a small 
station, he noticed a small boy, about two years old, crawling 
upon the track. He sprang forward just in time to rescue the 
child, whose father was the station-master. Being quite poor 
he could only reward young Thomas for his bravery by teach- 
ing him telegraphing. Therefore, every night after the day's 
work was finished on the train, Thomas gladly went down for 
his lessons, and in a short time became an expert operator, be- 
ing soon employed in various offices. Although very skilful in 
his new employment, he spent much of his time in making ex- 
periments, chiefly connected with electricity. Having not only 
improved old methods of using this subtle fluid, we also find 
him inventing new instruments, which have become the wonder 
of the civilized world. Althoisgh only 31 years of age, be prob- 



THE TELEPHONE. 29 I 

How Was he led to make so many improvements in 
the Telephone? 

By constant study and many experiments. 

Will you give an account of one of his attempts ? 

Mr. Edison had tried for a long time to find a sub- 
stitute so sensitive and elastic that it would be easily 
affected by a current of electricity passing over it, 
and yield to the slightest pressure. 

Did he succeed at first f 

No, he did not ; having tried every chemical in his 
shop, of which he had some 2,000. 

What followed f 

He did not like to give up the attempt, and while 
still looking for something that would answer the 
purpose, his assistant brought in a piece of a lamp- 
chimne}'-, to which adhered a little lamp-black. 

Did this prove of any use ? 

Yes ; the lamp-black was scraped off, pressed into 
a cake and placed between two metal plates, one of 
which was large enough to receive the sound now 
uttered before it. 

What were attached to these plates ? 

The opposite poles of the battery were fastened to 
these plates, so that the current of electricity passing 
over the cake of carbon or lamp-black, caused it to 
yield to the slightest pressure. 

ably stands at the head of the list of living Inventors. Nearly 
every week brings Us the account of some new and wonderful 
machine, as the result of his great industry and ingenuity. 



292 PRACTIOAL SCIENCE. 

Will you describe another form of the Telephone in 
which the principles of the carbon cake is used ? 

This instrument, which is one of the most recent 
inventions of Mr. Edison, consists of a box about lO 
inches wide, 1 8 long, and 7 deep, open at one end. A 
small glass tube is fastened to the top of it by sealing, 
wax. 

What are placed in the tube ? 

The tube is filled with pieces of willow charcoal 
that have been metallized with iron. 

How is charcoal metallized ? 

Small sticks of charcoal are placed in an iron box, 
having a loose cover, and gradually brought to a white 
heat. 

Why are they thus heated? 

They are heated so that any water in the pores of 
the charcoal may be expelled, this being replaced by 
vapor of iron, which, being heavier than the vapor 
from the water, does not pass out of the box. 
What is the result ? 

When cooled, the sticks of charcoal are loaded with 
iron, and then said to be metallized. 

To what use is it now applied ? 

Small pieces of the metallized charcoal are placed 
in the glass tube, as we have before said, and pressed 
closely together, until a portion projects from each end. 
What is then done ? 

The wires always used in the telephone are v/ound 
around these projecting ends, and the glass tube closed 
with sealing-wax, when the instrument is complete. 



I 

I 



THE TELEPHONE. 293 

W/iat effect will it produce ? 

On holding an ordinary electro-magnet telephone 
'to the ear, with a battery attached, the mere rubbing 
of the finger, or the tracing of a pencil on the box, or 
a house-fly walking over it, can be distinctly heard. 

How is this done f 

The charcoal tube being so very sensitive to the 
least impressions, the mere vibrations caused by the 
movements just mentioned will produce these won- 
derful effects. 

What 7nore can you tell 'yne of this Telephone ? 

By means of it sounds become audible that could 
not otherwise be heard. 

Give an example. 

If a watch is placed on the box the slightest move 
ments of the delicate works within can be heard, even 
to the grinding of the wheels as they pass each other, 
also the ring of the main-spring. If words in a low 
tone are uttered in the box, they will sound like the 
loudest trumpet ; and the blowing of the breath, as 
the roar of the wind in a forest. 

To what other practical uses can so delicate an in- 
strument be applied? 

Physicians will find it useful in sounding the lungs, 
heart, etc., of their patients. 

How is this done ? 

As it is so very sensitive, the least irregularity in 
the pulse, heart, lungs or any other organ can be more 
readily detected than by any other means. 

What name is given to this instrument ? 

It is called " The Carbon Telephone." 



294 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE PHONOGRAPH. 



W/iat Still more wonderful instrument has Mr. Edi- 
son invented! 

The Phonograph. 

What may it be called ? 

The " Child of the Telephone^' because its invention 
depended upon first seeing what the Telephone could 
do. 

Will you describe it ? 

It is very simple in form, consisting of a brass 
grooved cylinder, through which passes a long screw. 
At the end of this is a crank for turning the Phono- 
graph. 

With what is the cylinder covered? 

It is wrapped around with tin-foil to receive the 
permanent impressions made upon it. 

How is the instrument used ? 

When a person speaks through the mouth-piece 
fastened to the cylinder, at each vibration caused by 
the voice the diamond-tipped point attached to a 
spring dots the tin- foil wrapped around the cylinder, 
reverberating the sound back again to the listener. 



THE PHONOGRAPH. 295 

What makes this simple instrument so wonderful f 

That which makes it so wonderful is the fact that 
the impressions once made on the tin-foil, being per- 
manent as we have said, the sounds which produced 
them can be heard at any time again, by simply turn- 
ing the crank. 

If the handle is turned backward, what is the result ? 

The sentence that was uttered will be reversed, or 
in other words, the machine will talk backward. 

What still more wonderful effect can be produced by 
the Phonograph ? 

If a song is registered, and afterwards a speech or 
conversation, on turning the crank, the two utterances 
can be heard at the same time, and yet each will be 
clearly distinguishable. 

How cmt the sound he magnified f 

A cone-shaped resonator is attached to the speaking 
orifice. 

Is the Phonograph now complete ? 

By no means ; the great inventor is constantly 
making improvements in it; and says he hopes yet 
to make it speak so loudly as to be used on board 
ships to warn vessels in time of fogs or any other danger. 

Has Air. Edison invented other i?tstruments ? 

Yes ; a great many. 

Mention some of them. 

The Aerophone, Megaphone, Microphone, Tasime- 
ter, etc. 

What is the object of the Megaphone f 

The Megaphone is intended as a substitute for the 



296 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

ear and speaking-trumpet. Sounds being heard by it 
at a great distance. 

Have any other instruments of the kind been in- 
vented? 

Speaking and ear trumpets have been long in use. 
One writer mentions a gigantic speaking-trumpet, 
called " The Horn of Alexander." 

Was it very powerful f 

It is said that Alexander the Great used it to call 
his soldiers at a distance of ten miles. We are not 
certain, however, that this is true, as it is generally 
supposed the speaking-trumpet was invented by 
Samuel Moreland, in 1670. 

Will you describe the Megaphone ? 

It consists of three paper or pasteboard funnels, 
placed side b)'' side — the middle one, which is smaller 
than the others, being used as the speaking-trumpet. 

What is the size of the outer funnels ? 

They are about 6 feet 8 inches long and 2 feet 2>\ 
inches in diameter at the larger end, being used as 
ear trumpets. 

How far can sounds be heard by the Megaphone ? 

Both ordinary conversation and singing can be 
heard at a distance of a mile or two. 

Is more than one i?tstrument necessary ? 

Both the speaker and hearer should be provided 
with one, although by simply using the ear, or middle 
funnel, a low whisper maybe heard 1000 feet distant, 
and walking through grass much farther. 



THE PHONOGRAPH. 29/ 

IVAat is the Tasimeter ? 

It is an instrument so constructed as to be very 
Sensitive to the least degree of heat. 
What use may be made of it ? 

It can be applied to many purposes ; one of the 
most important being in the study of astronomy. 

Will you explain in what way ? 

Telescopes being used for discovering stars, etc., 
not visible to the naked eye, the Tasimeter is at- 
tached to a large telescope, and the instrument direct- 
ed to a part of the heavens where no heavenly bodies 
have been discovered. 

What follows f 

If there should be any star in this blank space, 
either nonJuniinous, or so far distant that it cannot be 
revealed by the telescope, it would be made known by 
the least variation in the Tasimeter. 

When was this instrument successfully used f 

At the last great eclipse, July 29th, 1878. 

What is the latest invention of Mr. Edison. 

The latest, and perhaps the most important, is the 
application of electricity to lighting private houses 
and public buildings. 

Have any such attempts been made before f 
. Yes, very frequently ; but none of them have been 
successful. 

Who first produced electric light ? 

Faraday, a learned Englishman, in 1831, obtained a 
spark of electricity by motion ; this may be considered 



298 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

as the origin of the ideas which have recently been 
utiHzed by Mr. Edison. 

What advantage in his invention over previous at- 
temps f 

Electric light has already been used, and although 
very powerful, it was too much concentrated upon one 
point. Mr. Edison removes this difficulty by making 
it radiate in all directions. 

What peculiarity can you mention in this new inven- 
tion ? 

Although the light is very intense, yet no heat what' 
ever is given out ; and as glass globes can be used with 
the burners, there will then Be no danger of breaking 
them. 

Is the light easily produced f 

It is more readily obtained even than gas. 

Explain this. 

No matches are required for lighting the burner J 
it is only necessary to touch a spring, so that even a 
child can safely and easily use it. 

Can you mention any other advantage ? 

It can readily be introduced into any building, if 
gas is already in use there, as the same pipes can en- 
close the electric wire ; the patent burner of Mr. Edi- 
son may be placed at the end of the gas fixtures. 

Hozv is the degree of light regulated ? 

This is done by springs. 

Will the electric light be more expensive than gas ? 

Mr. Edison says it will be much cheaper. There- 
fore, if this new invention proves a success, it may be 
regarded as one of the most important ever made. 



SECTION XVI. 



SUGAR. 



CHAPTER I. 



How long has sugar been an article of traded 
This is not certainly known, but the ancient Jews 
are supposed to have used it. In the time of Alex- 
ander, 325 B.C., his admiral, Nearchus, found it among 
the people in the East Indies. The best sugar was 
produced in India. 

When was it first brought to Europe ? 
It was carried there from Asia, in A.D. 625. The 
cultivation of the cane commenced in Sicily, being 
brought from Tripoli and Syria, then it passed to 
Madeira, afterwards to the West Indies and America. 
When was it introduced into England f 
Probably before the time of Henry VI I L, though 
this is not certainly known. 

Where is it raised in great quantities f 

In Cuba and Louisiana, as well as in other places. 



300 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

From what is sugar obtained ? 

From the sugar-cane, beets, and maple-trees, 

Wkat can you say of sugar-cane culture in the United 
States. 

It was first introduced into Louisiana, in 1751, but 
made little progress for the next fifty years. 

What change then took place? 

The revolution of 1 794, in St. Domingo, caused the 
French people, who lived there, to fiy for their lives, 
with a few faithful slaves. They took refuge on board 
some American vessels, and as there were many 
French residents in Louisiana, they concluded to set- 
tle in that State. To these refugees we are indebted 
for the Creole cane, a small, yellow kind, then only 
cultivated in the French Islands. 

By whom was sugar-cane introdticcd into Georgia f 

By an enterprising farmer, who obtained 100 canes 
from the Otaheite Island. These soon increased to 
2000, and from them nearly all the sugar plantations 
in Georgia and Louisiana have been formed. 

How far did the culture extend? 

It spread very rapidly to a distance of 150 miles 
from the sea, but the business on a large scale was 
soon after abandoned, enough only being raised for 
home consumption. 

What was the cause of this ? 

The planters found that rice and cotton were more 
profitable in Florida and Georgia than the cane, and 
that Texas and Louisiana could produce more than 
double the quantity of sugar raised in the other States. 



SUGAR. 301 

An acre in Texas yields 2400 pounds, while in 
Georgia, only 1000 pounds are produced from the 
same extent of land. 

How 'many kinds of cane are cultivated in Louis- 
iana ? 

There are five species, viz. : The Bourbon, which 
has a dark purple color, and is very hardy. The Green 
Ribbon, being bright yellow, delicately striped with 
green. The Red Ribbon has narrow purple stripes, 
and is not affected by light frost. 

What is the next variety ? 

The Otaheite ; it has large joints, does not grow 
high, has a thin skin, and is not able to resist frost. 
The juice is very rich and abundant. 

Describe the fifth species ? 

This is called The Creole Cane, and produces a 
superior kind of sugar, but is not so much used as the 
Bourbon, being less hardy. 

What can you say of the mode of culture ? 

It is very simple, much like that of Indian Corn, 
The cuttings are planted in the Fall, usually in rows, 
three, five, and even sometimes eight feet apart, so 
as to be freely exposed to air and sun, during the 
nine months that are allowed for it to ripen. The cut- 
tings are laid straight in the furrows that have been 
ploughed, and then covered with earth five or six 
inches deep. 

How often is the cane plarited f 

The time varies for different places. In Louisiana, 
usually once in three years ; further north, it must be 



302 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

done annually ; but in the West Indies, and other tropi- 
cal places, the cane will yield abundantly for 12, 15, 
and even 24 years, from the same roots. 
When is the cane gathered? 

In Louisiana, the business usually begins in the 
latter part of October, and must be done as quickly as 
possible, to avoid frosts. 
What is first done f 

In this State, the seed does not ripen on the stalk, 
therefore it is necessary to gather the part to be 
planted again, and lay it on mats to be ripened in the 
sun, being protected from frost by a mass of thick 
tops, which cover it a foot deep. 

What follows? 

The crops are now cut off. For this purpose each 
person has a large cane-knife, similar to a butcher's 
cleaver. With the back of it he knocks off the dry 
leaves, removes the unripe joints which cannot be 
used, the rest of the stalk to the root is cut, and falls 
to the ground. This part of the work is done very 
rapidly. 

Are the stalks left on the ground? 

No ; they are gathered up by women and children, 
taken in bundles to the wagons waiting to receive 
them, and carried to the mill, which is usually built 
eight or ten feet from the ground, that the juice may 
flow into the boxes placed under them, when it is car- 
ried to the kettles for boiling. 

Where are the canes placed in the mill? 

They are spread evenly on the " cane-carrier'' which 



SUGAR. 303 

is a belt revolving on a wheel, and carried by it to the 
heavy iron rollers. These press out the juice, which 
by boiling and evaporating changes it into musco- 
vado. 

What is Muscovado ? 

This is the name given to raw or unrefined sugar. 
It is placed in hogsheads with holes in the bottom, to 
allow the liquid part, called molasses, to flow through. 

What is added to thejti ice while boiling ? 

A preparation of lime is used to purify the sugar, 
the juice being bleached by filtering it through " bone- 
black," that is, bones that have been changed to char- 
coal, by heating in a close vessel 

What is the Capacity of the mills f 

This varies in different places : some turn out lOOO 
gallons of juice per hour, for twenty hours each day, 
which produces 10 hogsheads of sugar, and 20 barrels 
of molasses. 

How is the Muscovado sugar purified? 

When properly boiled, it is poured into conical- 
shaped jars, with a hole in each. As soon as the 
molasses has drained off, the top is covered with some 
moistened clay. As this drains through the sugar, it 
carries off much of the impurities. This is then called 
'* clayed," which can be refined by dissolving in water, 
and boiling again with some purifying substance, as 
blood, etc., when it is poured into the conical jars and 
covered with clay as before. 

How is loaf sugar made ? 

This is the purest and best kind used. The raw 



304 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

material is emptied into a pan having the bottom per^ 
forated with holes. Steam being applied to it below, 
the sugar is dissolved. Some chemical substances 
are added, that remove all color, leaving a pure white 
article. 

What follows . 

It then passes to other pans, all the air is excluded, 
and it is boiled by steam. As soon as it begins to 
cool, the fine crystals or grains peculiar to loaf sugar 
appear. When boiled enough, it is poured into 
moulds in the loaf form, so that the sugar may remain 
while the liquid passes off, the molasses being about 
one-fifth of the whole quantity. 

Is anything more necessary ? 

Sometimes a solution of lime is poured over the 
loaf, and in passing through, any slight impurities that 
remain are removed. The loaves are left to cool, then 
packed in paper, marked, and ready for shipment. 

What can you say of the quantity of sugar used in 
the United States ? 

More is consumed here than in any European coun- 
try, although not so much as in Cuba ; enormous 
quantities being used there for preserves, which are 
very common as an article of food, besides much that 
is exported. The people of this country are noted for 
having a " sweet tooth.'* 

How much sugar is tisedfor Candy ? 

Every year ^8,000,000 are spent in making confec- 
tionery. 



SUGAR, 305 

What do you knozv of Stuart" s refinery f 

It is one of the largest in the world. More than 
300 men are employed ; and in one week 763 hogs- 
heads, or 840,000 lbs. of sugar are used. 

How does the machinery work there f 

The sugar is raised by steam power to the top of 
the building, emptied into an immense copper vat. 
Being soon dissolved by steam, while flowing through 
pipes and tanks, it is purified. At length it reaches 
the ground floor, where large barrels are ready to re- 
ceive it, when it is shipped to various parts of the 
country. 

How mtich is lost in refining ? 

About li lbs, of raw sugar will make one of white ; 
and as much more of the refined sugar is in demand 
now than formerly, greater crops of the sugar-cane 
must be raised. 



306 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER II. 

MAPLE. SORGHUM. BEET SUGAR. 

How is maple sugar obtained ? 

Maple trees being tapped, a sweet juice flows out, 
which is converted into sugar by boiling. 

What is the color of it ? 

It is a dark brown. But by improvements in refin- 
ing, the article can be made as pure and white as the 
finest loaf sugar. 

How is this done f 

It is boiled in a kettle, with potash, until a thick 
syrup is formed, which is strained when warm. After 
standing twenty-four hours, it is poured off, and can 
then be clarified. 

Explain the process 

For a quantity of 50 pounds a mixture of one quart 
of milk, an ounce of saleratus, the whites of two eggs 
well beaten, is boiled into the sugar until it becomes 
thick. 

What follows. 

This is drained through a tube, large at the top and 
coming to a point at the bottom. The sugar is put in 



MAPLE. SORGHUM. BEET SUGAR, 307 

when cold, the top covered with a thick, wet flannel, 
while the syrup and impurities drain through at the 
bottom, leaving the pure white sugar. 

Where is the greatest quatitity of maple sugar made f 

Vermont and New York take the lead in the amount 
produced. Very little attention being given to the 
business in the Southern States. In i860, about 
39,000,000 pounds were made in the U. S., besides 
2,000,000 gallons of maple molasses. 

Has this amount been since increased? 

Yes; in 1863, 1864 and 1865, the price of cane 
sugar advanced so much, that more attention was given 
to the making of the maple variety. In 1864, at least 
30,000 tons were manufactured. 

SORGHUM. 

From what is Sorghum made ? 

The juice from the stalks of the Sorgho and Imphee, 
two plants of the maize family, when boiled, form a 
sweet syrup used as molasses. 

Can sugar also be made from it ? 

Attempts have been made to produce this article, 
but with little success, as the syrup does not crystallize 
readily. 

When was Sorghum first made ? 

The business commenced in 1850, gradually in- 
creasing, and during the late civil war advanced very 
rapidly on account of the high price of cane sugar and 
molasses. 



308 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

How much was then produced f 

Probably not less than 50 or 60 millions of gallons. 
Since then it has declined, although stili manufactured 
to some extent. 

Has sugar been made from anything else f 

Very successful attempts have been made to pro- 
duce it from the white sugar beet in California, Colo- 
rado, Wisconsin and Illinois. 

How much has been made f 

In 1868 and 1869 not less than 300 tons, and now 
probably as many thousand are produced. The beet 
sugar is also extensively manufactured in France, 
Holland, and other parts of Europe. Sugar and mo- 
lasses have also been made at Buffalo and a few other 
places from corn, by a chemical process. 



SECTION XVII. 



BEVERAGES 



CHAPTER 1. 



Prom ivhat is Tea obtained? 

It is the leafy product of a plant called " Thea," and 
belongs to the same family as the beautiful Camillas. 
The shrub is very bushy, growing to the height of 
from three to five feet, and sometimes even higher. 
It bears shining green leaves and white flowers, re- 
sembling the Myrtle. 

Where is it found f 

It is a native of China and Japan, also cultivated in 
and around India, and the Island of Java. The plant 
has been introduced into S. America, and, with the 
assistance of Chinese laborers, has been cultivated in 
Rio Janeiro. 

Has it been raised in the United States ? 

An attempt was made in 1848, by Dr. Smith, to 
produce it in the mountainous part of S. Carolina. 



3iO PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

For this purpose he imported plants of about fivg 
years' growth from China, and stocked a small planta- 
tion. 

What success followed ? 

Although exposed to severe frosts and snow, they 
were uninjured, and a fair crop was gathered, proving 
that our soil and climate are well adapted to the cul- 
ture of tea. 

Has it since received much attention ? 

It has not; as other crops can be raised with greater 
profit. Besides, it is difficult to find laborers who 
understand its cultivation. If it should become a 
staple of the country, California is probably the State 
where it will flourish most, as many Chinese live there, 
and the soil and climate are favorable to its growth. 
Why is tea so expensive here ? 

Because it costs a great deal to transport it from 
the mountainous districts of China to the coast, then 
a long sea voyage follows before it reaches our shores, 
adding to the expense. 

What is the cost of the article in China f 

A fair quality of tea in the districts where it is 
raised, is valued at 8 or 9 cents per pound. The cost 
of packing, transportation, duties, etc., add only about 
6 cents more, making the whole amount to but 15 cents 
before shipment to other countries. 

How can it be raised so cheap f 

This is owing to the low wages paid to laborers, 
generally only $7, or $4. per month, rates that could 
not be thought of in our country. 



TEA, 3 1 1 

How long has tea been used as an article of drink ? 

Various dates are given. The Japanese say that 
the Chinese first obtained it from Corea in the year 
^2Z, but this is not certain. It has not been traced 
back with certainty farther than the 9th century. 
Two Arabian travellers describe it as being then in 
use by the Chinese. 

When was it first brought to Europe? 

In the early part of the i6th century the Portu- 
guese imported it. Travellers in China gave wonder- 
ful accounts of the virtues of tea in the 17th cen- 
tury, it being then generally used in Asia. 

When was it used in England ? 

About 1650; and for many years was regarded as ^ 
rare and choice article at very grand entertainments. 
The Dutch East India Company imported much ol 
it in the first part of the 17th century. 

Did it soon become generally usedf 

Not for some time ; aS it was too expensive, except 
for the most wealthy persons. 

What had been used before tea was introduced f 

It was the custom in different parts of Europe to 
make hot drinks of various kinds of herbs, steeped 
in water ; the sage being one of the most common 
plants thus used. The Dutch are even said to have 
carried it to China to be exchanged for tea leaves. - 
What price was paid for tea f 

For some time after it was brought to Europe, from 
^30.00 to ^50.00 per pound were the usual rates. 



3t2 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

How was it sold? 

It was retailed in the leaf form as we now buy it, 
and also as a liquid, being prepared to drink. 

Did it soon become cheaper f 

It must have continued very expensive for a long 
time ; as in 1664 a present of 2 pounds 2 ounces, 
valued at 1^25.00, was made to the King of England by 
the East India Company, and two years afterwards 
another similar present which was even more costly 
than the other. 

How was the quantity of tea in Europe increased f 

In 1677 the East India Company began to import 
it, but the duties were for a long time so heavy that it 
was regarded more as an article of luxury than of 
use. 

What were some of the practices adopted by the trad- 
ers ? 

They smuggled, or brought into the market without 
paying duties, great quantities of tea adulterated, and 
evc -^old a counterfeit for the real article. 

What is the meafiing of adulterated? 

To adulterate any thing is to mix some poorer 
article with the pure ; in this way much money is made 
dishonestly. 

h this practice ever followed now ? 

It is ; not only in selling tea, but also coffee, sugar, 
and many other things : a fine is the penalty for such 
an act. 

Are heavy duties now paid on tea in England? 

Since 1834 they have been much diminished, so that 



T^A. 313 

all classes of persons, rich and poor, can have this 
beverage. 

How long has it been used in the United States ? 

To some extent the colonists always had it ; but it 
was not until 1790 that the tea trade became of much 
importance ; since then it has gradually increased 

Is it in universal demand through the country f 

We find it much more used in the north-eastern part, 
gradually diminishing towards the south, so that in 
some of the Southern States tea is almost and even 
entirely unknown. Coffee is substituted for it there, 
and to a great extent in the Western States. 

Do the people of all nations prepare tea in the same 
way? 

No ; we find different methods adopted. The most 
general is to steep the leaves in hot water. 

What other met/iod can you mention f 

The Japanese always powder the leaf, and put it in 
porcelain cups filled with boiling water. The Persians 
boil the leaves until the water becomes black and ac- 
quires a bitter taste, when they add sugar, cloves, 
anise seed, fennel, etc. 

What can you say of the Tartars ? 

They are very poor as a nation, and therefore use 
a common quality of the tea plant having coarse 
leaves. They press these with the stalks into little 
blocks, calling it " Brick Tea^ 

How do they use it ? 

The Tartars lead a roving life, and on their long 



314 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

journeys boil a lump of this tea, which makes th^ba^,. 
water they often find less disagreeable. 

Is there mom than one kind of tea ? 

Yes ; we find many varieties, which either grow on 
different plants, or are prepared in various ways from 
the same bush. 



TEA. 315 



CHAPTER 11. 

TEA {Cultivating)^: 

Where do we find tea most extensively raised? 

In a large portion of China, between 20' and 40** 
N. Latitude, extending east over the Japan islands, 
and west to Napaul and the Himalaya Mts. The 
most important part of this district in near the coast. 

Are there any other countries where it is much culti- 
vated ? 

In Japan, Tonquin and Cochin China, also in the 
mountainous parts of Ava, as well as in those places 
already mentioned. 

On what kind of land is it raised f 

The "garden tea," as it is called, is produced on the 
plains ; while that which grows on more elevated re- 
gions is named " hill tea," being far superior to the 
former. 

Where is the best tea cultivated f 

That in Napaul, on land nearly 500O feet above the 
Bay of Bengal, is considered superior to any other. 
It brings from ^1.50 to ^1.75 per pound in the India 
markets. 



3l6 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Is very rich soil necessary ? 

-No ; for sometimes flourishing tea-fields may be 
seen on hill-sides, where no other green shrub appears. 

When are the seeds planted ? 

In the Spring ; having been buried in sand during 
the Winter. Some six or eight are sown in holes about 
four feet apart. 

If the season should be dry, what is done f 

The young plants are moistened with rice water, 
or some other nutritious liquid, and if the winter is 
severe, are protected by straw wrapped around them. 

When are the leaves gathered ? 

Not until the second or third year. Sometimes the 
young leaf buds are picked early in April for the 
Pekoe tea, the best black variety known. 

Do any other leaves appear f 

Yes ; these are gathered late in April and early in 
May, forming the most important part of the crop. 

Are there any more? 

There is a third gathering early in July, and some- 
times even a fourth in August and September, but the 
leaves are large, and the tea produced of an inferior 
quality. 

How often are the plants renewed ? 

They will usually bear for ten or twelve years, when 
the old ones are dug up, and give place to seedlings. 

How are the leaves gathered f 

The laborers strip them off very rapidly into bas- 
kets of split bamboo, and being carried to a building 
they are sorted, and then dried. 



TEA. 317 

Describe these buildings. 

They seem to be low sheds, more or less open at 
the sides. Within are seen rows of pans in stacks of 
brick work, ready to receive the tea leaves. 

Is the drying always done in the same way ? 

The method varies with the different kinds of tea 
to be prepared. Sometimes the leaves are exposed 
to the sun in shallow pans, others are dried by being 
tossed up in the air. 

How is a very choice variety dried f 

That it may not be injured by handling, it is whirled 
around in sieves. 

What follows f 

The leaves are then exposed to a gentle* heat, suffi- 
cient to dry the moisture, but not enough to injure 
the aroma of the tea. 

Is this done by machinery ? 

No ; a person is required for each pan, to keep it 
constantly in motion with the hand. A brisk wood 
fire is kept under the pans during this operation. 

What is then done f 

In a few minutes the leaves become soft, pliable, and 
moist upon the surface ; they are then thrown on a 
bamboo table, the workmen roll them in their hands, 
giving to the leaves the curled appearance common to 
imported tea. 

Explain the next step in the process ? 

The leaves are exposed to the air on a bamboo 
screen, then roasted with less heat over a charcoal, in- 



3l8 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

stead of a wood fire ; they are again rolled, these pro- 
cesses being sometimes once more repeated. 

How are they finally dried f 

This is done — for the finest sorts — in pans over a 
very gentle charcoal fire. 

What is the difference between green and black tea ? 

The latter is exposed to the air for a longer time 
before the drying, as well as while it takes place. The 
leaves are sometimes spread for a whole night on 
bamboo mats, then tossed about and exposed to the 
air before being put in the pans. This causes the 
change of color from green to black. 

In what other respect do they differ? 

As the green is not exposed to the air for so Ibng a 
time, the peculiar qualities of the plant are retained, 
as appears from the effect of the tea upon the nervous 
system. 

Are both kinds of tea raised on the same land? 

Many assert that the plants furnishing black tea are 
raised on hilly places, while the green is obtained from 
the level lands that have been well fertilized. 

For which kind is there a greater demand ? 

The green is more highly prized. 

What have the Chinese done in consequence of this ? 

They have colored inferior or damaged black teas, 
so as to make them pass for the higher priced green 
variety, and also improved the color of the poorer 
quality of the green to increase its value. 

How is this done ? 

An English nobleman, Sir John Davis, who wit- 



TEA. 319 

nessed the process, says that the Chinese first stir a 
little pulverized yellow turmeric among the leaves, 
while heated in the pans, and then add a mixture of 
gypsum and Prussian blue. Sometimes indigo and 
porcelain clay are also used. 

Is this fraud still practiced ? 

It is ; so that nearly, if not all, the green teas ex- 
ported from China are colored or glazed. 

What is also done to some black teas f 

Some kinds, as the " Orange Pekoe," " Black Gun- 
powder," or " Scented Caper," are made to appear 
smooth and glossy by rolling the leaves in pulverized 
black lead. 

Are all kinds adulterated ? 

Usually only the finer sorts ; the more common, as 
Souchong and Cougons, are free from these mixtures. 

What other methods of deception are practiced by the 
Chinese f 

They often mix leaves of the ash, plum, etc., with 
the pure tea, and even go so far as to make a spurious 
article, having no real tea-leaves in it. 

What name do they give it f 

They call it themselves the " Lie Tea " and even so 
mark the chests containing it. 

How do they prepare it ? 

The " Lie Tea " is made of the dust of tea and 
other leaves mixed with sand ; by adding a little starch 
or gum, these substances will unite in little masses, 
which are then colored to imitate either the black or 



320 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

green variety. The " Lie Tea" is also mixed with the 
pure article. 

How is this known ? 

When steeped in boiling water the leaves will not 
unfold. 

How are the different flavors given to tea f 

The Chinese add the leaves of sweet-scented flow- 
ers, which are dried, powdered, and sprinkled over the 
tea-leaves, or else the leaves of each herb are arranged 
in layers, and all roasted together until the flowers be- 
come crisp, when they are removed by sifting. 

What is the average product of a tea-farm ? 

Usually not more than 600 chests each, annually. 

Hotv are they sold ? 

The tea merchants purchase enough from each farm 
to make about 620 or 630 chests, which they mix to- 
gether, adulterate, roast again, then pack in chests for 
transportation, being sold to another merchant. 

What does he do with them ? 

He puts upon them some mark, denoting the kind 
and quality of the article.and forwards them to the shij>- 
ping ports. 

Hoiv are they carried f 

Through some of the districts the transportation 
is done by men, who place a bamboo stick across their 
shoulders, and put a chest on each end of it. 

Is there any other method ? 

If the tea is of superior quality, greater care is taken. 
A single chest is fastened at the end of two bamboos 
and carried on the back of each man ; the other ends 



TEA. 321 

project in front, and are tied together. If he wishes 
to rest in going up the mountains, he places these two 
ends upon the ground, leaving the chest upright in 
the air, which relieves him of the weight. 

Is there any other reason for this ? 

It is done so that the chest may never be defaced, 
or the tea injured by touching the ground. It is also 
shipped in boats as well as by porters. 

How long does it take to perform these journeys f 

From the Bohea districts to Canton, six to eight 
weeks, and to Shanghai, distance 620 miles, 28 days 
are required. 

From what sea-ports in China are the principal eX' 
ports made ? . 

Chiefly from Shanghai, Foochow and Canton. The- 
first and most northern of these places ship nearly all 
the tea used in the U. S. About twice as much is ex- 
ported to Great Britain as to this country. The 
English generally prefer tea to coffee. 



322 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER III. 

COFFEE. 

Was Coffee much used by the ancients f 

Probably not, as we find no traces of it among theif 
ruins, or any account of it in their writings. 

To what nation are We indebted for it ? 

Its use is traced to the Arabians, who are supposed 
to have obtained it ffom Abyssinia, where it has been 
in use for centuries. As good coffee is raised there 
as in Arabia. In 1454 it was much used in the latter 
country ; thence passed into Egypt and Syria. It 
grows wild in Siberia and Ethiopia. 

When was it introduced into Europe f 

In 151 1, in Constantinople, where coffee houses 
were opened about fifty years later. M. Thevenot 
first brought it to France in 1662— some 20 years be» 
fore it was used in England, 

In what countries is the coffee-plant raised f 

Besides those already mentioned, it is cultivated in 
Java, Brazil, Surinam and the West Indies. 

Where is Surinam ? 

It is a Dutch colony in S. America. 



COFFEE. 323 

How was it introduced there f 

In the year 1 700, Gov. Van Home, a Dutch gentle- 
man, procured seeds from Mocha, and reared coffee- 
plants in Java ; he sent one of these as a curiosity to 
the Botanical Garden at Amsterdam. 

What resulted ? 

The seeds from this plant were sent by the Dutch 
to their colony at Surinam, and from these all the 
coffee of S. America has been produced. 

Is it raised in the U, S. ? 

The heat of summer is not sufficient to ripen the 
seeds ; while the cold of winter would kill the young 
plants. Nearly all we use is obtained from Brazil and 
St. Domingo— the former country furnishing nearly 
8 per cent, of our supplies. 

When does an English writer first mention the use 
of coffee. 

In 1621, Burton, writing of the Turks, says : " They 
have a drink called coffee (for they use no wine), so 
named of a berry as black as soot, and as bitter, which 
they sip up warm as they can," etc. 

How large is the coffee-plant ? 

Generally it is 8 or 10 feet in height, but when al- 
lowed to grow, will sometimes attain 30 feet 

What is the appearance of it ? 

The bark is of a gray color ; the white flowers grow 
in clusters around the branches. 

When cultivated, is it allowed to grow to its full 
height ? 

No ; this Is checked by cutting off the upper 



324^ PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

branches, when the slender ones below spread out a-nd 
bend over like those of an apple tree ; in this way the 
fruit is more easily gathered. 

How are the plants raised? 

They are produced first from seed in the nurseries, 
and when a year old are transplanted, being set out 
in rows. They are in full bearing in three years, and 
will thus continue for 20 years, and even longer. 

What is then done with them ? 

As the shrubs and land are both exhausted, the 
owner abandons the old plantation, and forms a new 
one by cutting down a forest of trees and clearing the, 
land. 

Cannot the former Fazenda be cultivated by enrich- 
ing the soil so as to be tised again ? 

Certainly, it might ; but the people of S. America 
and most tropical countries seldom have forethought , 
enough for that, although it is occasionally done. 

When is the coffee gathered ? 

There are two principal seasons for harvesting, viz. : 
the late spring and fall, although at all times the ripe 
fruit may be gathered. 

Why is this so ? 

The coffee plant being an evergreen shrub, the 
foliage is ahvays fresh and seldom without some blos- 
soms. The latter are continually appearing while the 
old flowers form into fruit. 

Describe this fruit. 

When ripe, it is red at first, then changes to a dark 
purple. It resembles a cherry, the fleshy part of 



COFFEE. 325, 

which is very sweet and pleasant to eat. Two flat 
coffee beans form the seed of each one. 
W/tai is done with the fruit when ripe ? 

In Arabia, where no heavy rains prevail that would 
beat it to the ground before being perfectly ripe, it is 
allowed to remain until just ready to fall, and then 
shaken on cloths spread under the bushes. The 
superior quality of the Arabian coffee is probably 
owing to this fact of its becoming so very ripe before 
gathering. 

What is the process in other countries ? 

The fruit is gathered by hand in the West Indies 
and S. America. At the harvesting season men, 
women and children may be seen scattered about 
the plantations, having broad shallow trays made of 
plaited grass or bamboo strapped over their shoul-. 
ders, and supported at the waist. 

How do they use them ? 

They gather the coffee berries in these trays — some . 
are a bright red, others beginning to dry, while a few 
are yet green, but will soon ripen in the hot sun. 

What can the children do ? 

They sit on the ground picking up the berries that 
fall under the bushes, singing gayly at their work. 

What is then done with the fruit? 

The custom at a South America fazenda, or coffee 
plantation, is for each one to carry his basket, when 
filled, to the superintendant, who empties it and gives 
in return a metal ticket, marked with the amount 
of work done. 



3*26 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

What use is made of the ticket ? 

Each one is required to do a certain task each day ; 
of course more for the men and less for the children. 
At night all present their tickets ; those who have 
done more than the allotted work are paid for it at 
once. 

After gatheHng the fruit what follows ? 

It must be dried : this is done on a level piece of 
ground usually at the foot of the coffee hills, the 
fruit being brought down in carts. Sometimes the 
roads are so bad that teams cannot travel there, and 
men are obliged to bring the harvest down the steep 
declivities on their heads. 

How are the drying lots prepared ? 

The level ground is laid out in regular plats, paved 
with cement of dazzling whiteness. This forms a 
kind of square, around which are built low white 
houses for the use of the laborers. Adjoining this is 
a larger house occupied by the owner or overseer and 
family. 

When ready for drying what is done with the fruit? 

It is spread on the place prepared, several inches in 
thickness, and exposed to the heat of the sun ; when 
quite dry, the fruit is passed between a grooved roller 
and a board, so that the pulp may be washed off. 

Is the process notv ended f 

Not quite ; a tough membrane still adheres to the 
seed — this is removed by a pair of heavy rollers, the 
chaff is winnowed out, when nothing but the coffee 
seeds remain. 



COFFEfi. 327 

Can they be Used at once ? 

Yes ; but age is said to improve them so much, that 
the very poorest coffee raised in America will in 10 
or 12 years become equal to the very best produced 
in Turkey. The Arabian coffee usually requires only 
three years to obtain the same result. 

What can you say of the raw coffee bean f 

It is very tough and horny, requiring to be roasted, 
so that it may be easily ground and dissolved in 
water. 

What should be done with it after roasting ? 

It must be closely covered in a box, that the aroma 
may be absorbed again ; otherwise it will evaporate, or 
pass into other substances, thus losing its strength 
and flavor. 

Is this the case with raw coffee ? 

It is to such an extent that it is not considered best 
to ship it in vessels previously freighted with sugar, 
etc. ; sometimes a few bags of pepper have spoiled a 
whole cargo of coffee. 

Do all nations tise coffee alike f 

No ; in Asia the natives make a thickened drink 
of it. In Sumatra the leaves are used instead of the 
seed ; the plant may be cultivated for the leaves in 
places where the soil and climate is not adapted 
to ripening the seed. 

How are the coffee leaves usedf 

They are roasted a little, then rubbed to powder in 
the hands, when it is prepared for drink like tea, which 
it is said to resemble, as well as coffee, in taste. 



328 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. ' 

Where do we find coffee mostly used? 

In the warmer parts of the earth. In tropical coun- 
tries it is the principal, even sometimes the onl/ 
beverage, and although used very freely, no injurious- 
effects appear. ' 

Is it the same in cold countries ? ■ 

No ; it is used less frequently, being considered 
unhealthy. The preference is given to tea. 

Is coffee ever adulterated f 

This is frequently and easily done by the addition 
of vegetable and other substances. Chicory is much 
used for this purpose. 

How is it knoivn f 
' By dissolving in cold water : if the liquid quickly 
turns brown, the coffee is adulterated ; but if it changes^ 
very slowly the article is pure, as coffee does not 
readily impart its color to cold water. 

What is chicory ? 

It is a plant belonging to the same family as the 
dandelion, found growing wild in England and most 
parts of Europe. 

Is it seen in this country ? 

The plant has been naturalized here, and is often 
found in the fields and along the road-sides. Its blos- 
soms, of a bright blue color, appear in August and 
September. 

What use is made of it ? 

Formerly it was employed as a medicine, but of 
late has become a substitute for coffee, or used as an 
adulteration of it. 



COFFEE. 32^ 

How is it prepared f 

The roots are dried and ground to powder, which 
resembles the color of ground coffee, but it has not 
the flavor or qualities of the article. The drink is, 
however, not unpleasant, and being very cheap the 
poor are glad to use it. 



330 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CHOCOLATE AND COCOA. 

What is chocolate ? 

It is a very nutritious drink prepared from eocoa, 
the fruit of a tree introduced into Europe from Mex- 
ico, in 1520, by the Spanish conquerors. 

Hozv did they regard it ? 

It was considered very valuable as well as pleasant. 
They thought it so nutritious, that a single cup of it 
was considered sufficient to sustain a soldier through 
a day's march. 

How is it prepared ? 

The cocoa beans are roasted, ground very fine, made 
into a paste, and mixed with various articles to flavor 
and perfume them. This is done by rolling them in the 
paste while warm. It is then poured into moulds, 
when the chocolate comes out in the form of cakes, 
and is ready for market. 

What are some of the substances added to the choco- 
late ? 

The Aztecs, an ancient tribe of Mexicans, used van- 
illa and different spices ; the French added musk and 



CHOCOLATE AND COCOA. 33 I 

various perfumes. Other Europeans also used sugar, 
and, like tea and coffee, even adulterated it with wheat 
flour, sago meal, arrow-root, honey, molasses, etc. 

How great was the adulteration? 

It was carried to such an extent that a famous 
chemist found often that more than \ of the chocolate 
sold in England was composed of these or similar 
substances. 

Is the flavor improved thereby ? 

No ; it is very inferior to the pure chocolate ; this is 
Eprobably one reason that it is not esteemed as highly 
as in the countries where the real article is sold. The 
object in adulterating it is to render the manufacture 
cheaper. 

Is chocolate tisedfor any other purpose ? 

A variety of sweetmeats are made from it. 

Where is the cocoa tree found from which chocolate 
is made ? 

It abounds in the countries of Central and South 
America, and in the West India Islands, where it some- 
times forms immense forests. It is also extensively 
cultivated in the Mauritius and Isle of Bourbon. 

What is the nature of the tree f 

It is an evergreen, bearing fruit and flowers through 
the whole year, and growing to the height of 20 feet. 

What can you say of the fruit "? 

It resembles a short thick cucumber, and contains 
20 or 30 beans. These are arranged in five rows in a 
rose-colored pulp. Each one is about the size of a sweet 



332 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

almond, only thicker. The pulp, being similar to that 
of our watermelon, is used for food. 

When is the fruit ripe f 

Usually it is ready to gather tAyice a year, in June 
and December, these being the principal crops ; al- 
though, like coffee, there is some ripe fruit at all times. 

Where is the choicest kind obtained ? 

The varieties from Central America are most high- 
ly esteemed. 

Hoiv are the beans prepared for market ? 

When the fruit is ripe the seeds are separatetd from 
the pulp and dried in the sun, when they are ready 
for sale. 

Can yon mention any other method ? 

It is the custom in some countries to put the seeds 
in large tubs, when, being covered, they undergo a 
slight fermentation, by which they lose some of the 
sharp, bitter qualities peculiar to the fruit. They are 
stirred every morning while the fermentation is going 
on. The same object is attained in Mexico and other 
places, by burying the beans in pits dug in the earth. 

What is iheti done with them ? 

They are taken out and dried in the sun, when they 
are ready for market. 

How are the dried beans used? 

They can be roasted like coffee, after which they 
are turned out into shallow wooden vessels and stirred 
while cooling. Those that have fermented now split 
open into lobes like split beans, the shells falling off 
easily, which are about Jth of the whole weight. 



CHOCOLATE AND COCOA. 333 

Are the shells of any use? 

Yes ; they form an inferior quality of cocoa, called 
" shells^^ which is used as a drink. 

What can be done with the split beans ? 

They may be used as food by long boiling ; but for 
making chocolate they must be ground up and mixed 
with other substances, as already described. 

COCOANUT. 

Is the cocoanut obtained from the same tree as the 
cocoa ? 

No ; it belongs to the natural family of palms, and 
is a native of nearly all tropical places, especially of 
islands and sand banks near the sea, and is. often cul- 
tivated on extensive tracts of sandy soil ; as along the 
coasts of Brazil, Ceylon, and the East Indies. 

Will you describe the tree ? 

It has a straight trunk, without branches, growing to 
the height of 50 or 80 feet. The top is crowned with 
a cluster of feather-like leaves, 12 or 15 feet long. 

Where do the flowers appear ? 

At the very top of the tree, where they grow in 
clusters' — enclosed in a sheath. The nuts afterwards 
appear, 10 or 12 being usually bunched together 

When does the tree begin to bear fruit ? 

Usually in the sixth or seventh year. It blossoms 
about once in six weeks during the rainy season, and 
produces each year loo nuts. 

Is the cocoa-mit tree of any other use ? 

Yes; many things are manufactured from different 



154 PRAdTiCAL SGIENGE. 

parts of it. In fact, there is no tree in the world from 
which so many useful things can be made. 
Will you mention some of them? 

The natives thatch their houses with the leaves, 
and so durable is this covering, that for many years 
it serves as a protection from wind and rain. The- 
finer fibres furnish material for a beautiful matting 
much used in the East Indies, while the coarser part 
is used for brooms and baskets. 

Can you give any others ? 

The ashes make potash. The thick wood in the 
centre of the tree is used for oars ; the thinner part 
being made into a kind of papef. 

Is the sap of any use ? 

Yes; this is obtained by making incisions in the 
flower buds at the top of the tree, and daily collected 
by persons who climb up there for them. At first it 
resembles water in appearance, and is sold as a cooling 
drink in the markets. 

What change does it undergo ? 

In a few hours it begins to ferment, when it has a 
sharp taste and intoxicates, like whisky. It is then 
called " palm-wine." When this is distilled, a very 
strong kind of ardent spirits is obtained, known to 
Europeans as " Arrack." 

What else is obtained from the sap ? 

A poor quality of sugar ; which, being boiled with 
quick lime, makes an excellent cement. 

What does the nut contain f 

A hard white substance, much used by the natives 



CHOCOLATE A^tJ CdCOA. 33§ 

as an article of food ; also esteemed by foreigners. 
The white liquid called milk is an agreeable beverage. 
A valuable oil is also extracted from it, which is used 
for burning and other purposes- 

What is done with the shell f 

Drinking cups are made from it. The outer husks 
furnish an excellent fibre ffom which Indian cordage 
is made, being thought more durable than any other. 
Large quantities of it are exported every year from 
Ceylon and India to England,^ 

When the Cocoa-nut is half formed, what does it con^ 
tain ? 

The white, hard part is then only a pulpy, cream- 
like substance, which is considered very delicious. It 
is eaten with a spoon ; sugar and orange blossoms are 
added to flavor it. 

Houf can you tell the age of the treg f 

It produces leaves and fruit long before it attains 
its full height, so that the head is constantly pushing 
up from the trunk; and wherevef the leaves have 
grown, two rings are formed around the tree, so that 
one year is allowed for every two rings. If there were 
30 rings the tree would be fifteen years old. 

Will you now give all the useful articles Made from 
the cocoa-nut tree f 

Bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, 
sugar, needles, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, 
paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, and cover- 
ing for houses. 



SECTION XVIII. 



COAL. 



. CHAPTER I. ~ . 

COAL. 

IV^at is coal ? 

This substance, so familiar to all, is composed of 
vegetable matter which has undergone a change while 
buried in the earth. 

Will y 071 describe its formation f 

In the history of the world, there is supposed to 
have been a period, before the creation of man, when 
the earth was covered with gigantic vegetation, differ- 
ent from any known to us. 

What caused it to grow thus f 

At that time there was a great deal of carbon in the 
air, much more than we have now, and as this gas is 
the food of vegetable matter, all plants and trees then 
grew to a wondrous size. 

How was the wisdom of God thus showjt ? 

As animals can live on but little carbon, requiring 



COAL. 337 

more oxygen £01: their support, they could not have 
existed at that time ; the vegetation, therefore, then 
took up the carbon, leaving the air pure, and fit for 
men and animals. 

Were there any animah at that time ? 

Some of the lower orders are supposed to have ex- 
isted, as remains of shell-fish^ corals, fishes, and a few 
reptiles, have been found in the coal regions. 

Was the vegetation forming the coal all huri&d at 
the same time ? 

This must have been; done at different periods ; as 
separate beds of coal are found with layers of earth 
between them. 

In what positioji are the formations f 

The fossil forests composing coal beds are often 
found erect, the change having taken place while, the 
trees and plants were still standing. Sometim^es^ alaoi 
these immense forests are found piled one above 
another. 

Can you give any instance of this ? 

Near Cape Breton at least 59 distinct forests have 
been traced out, one above the other. Also off the 
Bay of Fundy are high cliffs, where may be seen 17 
tiers of fossil forests, measuring 4^00 feet from base 
to summit. 

What do we infer from this ? 

It is probable that above the lowest tier earthy 
matter gradually accumulated, forming a foundation 
for the next forest, which, by the aid of carbon, soon 
arrived at its full growth, and in its turn became the 



338 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

basis of another series of vegetation, thus continuing 
through the whole strata. 

Are different forms of the material composing coat 
ever seen ? 

Yes; frequently in the mines may be discovered 
the delicate foliage, with scaly stems and drooping 
branches, as perfectly preserved as when first formed. 

What may be seen in the mines of Bohemia ? 

In the different galleries of these mines, the extinct 
foliage is found in great profusion, hanging from the 
arched roof and walls, so delicate and beautiful that 
the most elaborate works of art can give no idea of its 
grace and elegance. 

Did the vegetation of the coal period resemble that of 
the present day ? 

Very little, if at all ; being composed of reeds, pines, 
palms, etc., differing in size and appearance from those 
we now see. 

Has coal always been used for fuel by maji f 

Probably not ; although some writers say that the 
ancient Britons must have burned it instead of wood, 
as it is found in such abundance in England. 

Whe7t are we certain that it was discovered? 

About 1230, at New Castle-upon-Tyne, we first 
hear of coal being used. But it was not until 50 years 
later that it became an article of trade between that 
place and London. 

How was it regarded at first f 

It was generally considered so injurious to the 
health that it was regarded as a public nuisance, and 



COAL. 339 

does not seem to have been commonly used in Lon- 
don until 1400, or throughout England until the time 
of Charles II., 1625. 

/s coal us€dfor any thing except fuel f 

Yes ; a kind of luminous gas is obtained from it, 
besides various substances useful in the arts. 

How many kinds of coal mn you mention ? 

There are four principal varieties, viz. : anthracite, 
bituminous, cannel and brown. 

What is the anthracite coal? 

It is a very hard, pure variety, from which the 
bitumen has been expelled ; that which is left being 
mostly carbon. The word anthracite is from the 
Greek, and means " consisting of carbon." It burns 
without smoke or smelL 

Where is it found f 

In many parts of England, and very extensively in 
the eastern portion of the United States. This kind 
of coal was once bituminous, but being purified from 
its volatile gases assumed its present form. 

What is th^ extent of the atithracite coal bed in the 
Middle States^ 

In Pennsylvania, where it is found in greatest abun- 
dance, the formation covers an area of over 30 miles, 
being many feet in thickness. Detached beds also 
appear in many places near the main locality, so that 
it is supposed to underlay about one-third of the 
State. 

What can you say of the bituminous coalf * 

This is an inferior quality, found in the Western 



340 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

States more than at the East, and is so called from 
the quantity of bitumen found in it. 

W/mt is biUmien ? 

It is a kind of inflammable substance found in the 
earth, something of the nature of pitch, giving out a 
strong odor while burning. 

Are there any varieties of this substance ? 

Yes ; and different names are given, which indicate 
its gradual change from a vegetable to a mineral state, 
as lignite, bituminous wood, bituminous coal, etc. 

What may sometimes be seen in the same bed ? 

These different varieties are often found together, 
so that the changes through which the wood passes 
before becoming a mineral may be readily traced out. 

What is cannel coal? 

This variety is very hard and brittle, and takes a 
fine polish, so that ink-stands, snuff boxes, etc., are 
sometimes made of it. 

Why is it so called? 

The word cannel is a corruption of candle, as pieces 
of this coal are sometimes used in England and 
Ireland instead of lamps or candles. 

How does brown coal differ from those already men- 
tioned ? 

It is only partially converted into the mineral state, 
being generally found in beds near the surface of the 
earth. 

Is coal always seen below the level of the sea ? 

No ; it is sometimes discovered at great elevations. 



COAL. 341 

One writer states that it has been found on the Cor- 
dilleras, in S. America, 13000 feet above the sea level. 

Wkai is sometimes found with mineral coal ? 

Charcoal is often mixed with it ; and occasionally 
a piece will be seen, one side of which is charcoal, 
while the other has become mineralized. 



34? PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER II. 

USEFUL SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM COAL. 

When coal is perfectly purified from all other gases 
except carbon what do we have f 

The diamond, which is pure carbon crystallized, that 
is formed into a solid with a certain number of smooth 
sides cdlltd. faces. 

How is coal tisuallj fotmd f 

In layers called beds, separated by slate, quartz, or 
some other kind of rock ; they are several miles in ex- 
tent, and thousands of feet deep. 

What is the size of the coal-fields in England ? 

Those of Durham and Northumberland are 732 
square miles in extent. The beds of Yorkshire are 
said to be inexhaustible. The coal in South Wales 
alone is so abundant, that it will supply all England 
for at least 2000 years. 

Are there any others in Great Britain ? 

Rich mines have been opened in Scotland and Ire- 
land. 

Is there any danger attending the working of mines ? 

Frequent accidents happen to the v^orkmen from 



USEFUL SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM COAL. 343 

the machinery, falling of coal, and the explosions 
which took place. 

What was the catise of the latter ? 

This was owing to a kind of gas, called " fire-damp I' 
which formed in the mine, and when this came in con- 
tact with a lighted torch or candle, an explosion fol- 
lowed. 

How are accidents of this kind now prevented ? 

Sir Humphrey Davy, a learned Englishman, in- 
vented a safety lamp in 18 16, which can be carried 
through any part of a coal mine, and even plunged 
into this explosive gas without the slightest danger. 

How was it made ? 

The cup or vessel for holding the oil has a spout 
at the side by which it is filled. On the top is placed 
a wire gauze cylinder, supported by three iron rods ; 
this is closed by a cover, having a handle for carrying 
the lamp. 

Was this i7ivention the result of accident ? 

By no means ; Mr. Davy made many experiments 
before accomplishing the work. 

On what principle was this safety-lamp made ? 

The inventor found that although the gauze might be 
heated to white heat, yet that was not sufficient to make 
the gas explode ; but the heat of flame being greater 
would cause such an explosion. The flame coming in 
contact with the wire cooled enough to prevent any 
explosion, as metals are excellent conductors of heat. 

Ca?i you give an experiment to illustrate this ? 

If a piece of wire gauze is placed over the flame of 



344 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

a lamp, the hand can be held above it very close to 
the fire ; but on removing the gauze the heat cannot 
be borne for an instant. 

How can this gas be perceived in ike mine? 

It is known to be present by the loud explosions 
frequently heard : its power is very great. Frequently 
when a coal bed is first opened, the water enclosed 
will rush out with great violence ; and as the miner 
strikes the rock with his pick, the gas explodes as if 
a pistol had been shot. 

What does it even do to the coal itself ? 

It will burst pieces off the solid wall. If a river 
flows over the line where this gas forms, the water 
will be greatly agitated, and the vapor rising to the 
surface can be inflamed. When collected in cavities 
dug in the river bank, if ignited it will burn for 
months, unless extinguished. 

In the burning of coal what may be obtained? 

By distilling or burning in closed vessels, very use- 
ful products are obtained, as coke, coal-gas, coal-tar, 
naphtha, naphthaline, paraffine, benzole, coal-oil, etc. 

From which kind of coal are these most readily pro- 
duced? 

As the bituminous coal contains a greater variety 
of materials, more of these useful articles are obtained 
from it than from the purer anthracite. 

What is coke ? 

It is the mineral coal from which the bitumen, sul- 
phur, etc, have been removed. This is done by burn- 
ing the coal in closed ovens, a hole being left in the 



USEFUL SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM COAL. 345 

top for the gas to escape : other methods are some- 
times adopted. 

W/iat use is inade of coke ? 

It is used in glass furnaces, on railroads, etc., where 
great heat is required. Experiments have proved 
that its heating power is I greater than that of com- 
mon coal. 

Is coke ever found in a natural state ? 

Yes ; beds of it have been discovered on both sides 
of the James River, and at Richmond, Va., which are 
very productive. 

What use is made of coal-tar ? 

This is obtained in making gas for burning, and at 
first was considered useless. Now, however, it is em- 
ployed to cover machinery, as a protection from the 
weather, and when distilled, the pitch obtained being 
mixed with earthy substances, is used for pavements 
and water-proof covering of roofs. 

If purified, what else is formed of coal-tar. 

Some oily fluids and naphtha. 

What is naphtha ? 

It is a kind of mineral oil, burning with a blue 
flame, having a strong odor of bitumen, and so inflam- 
mable that it takes fire even on the appearance of 
flame. 

Is it found in a native state ? 

Copious springs of naphtha are seen on the Cas- 
pian Sea. The earth in that region constantly send- 
ing up vapor from it. This substance is also seen in 
Siberia, Hungary, Sicily, etc. 



34^ PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

Wkat use is made of it ? 

The streets of Genoa, Italy, are said to have 
been lighted with it. The people around the Caspian 
Sea collect the vapor in tubes, thus having perpetual 
light ; they also cook their food by this kind of fire. 

Can you mention any other uses to which it is 
applied ? 

When purified, it will readily dissolve caoutchouc, 
and mixed with wood-naphtha will make a solution of 
resinous substances, useful in various kinds of var- 
nish. 

Whejt naphtha is still further purified what is ob- 
tained from it ? 

A liquid called benzole, or benzoin, which is much 
used by India-rubber manufacturers, as it more easily 
dissolves the raw article than any thing else. It will 
be found very valuable for illuminating purposes when 
properly prepared. 

What is carbolic acid ? 

This is distilled from coal-tar, resembling creosote 
in taste and smell, and found very useful in the prep- 
aration of a valuable dye-stuff. Within a few years 
it has been extensively employed by physicians and 
surgeons. For the healing of wounds nothing has 
been found so quick and effective. 

Can you mention any thittg else obtained from coal- 
tar ? 

A heavier kind of oil than the last one mentioned 
may be formed, which, united with bleaching powder 
and other substances, makes a magnificent blue color 



USEFUL SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM COAL. 347 

that will probably be substituted for indigo in dye- 
ing. 

What is paraffine f 

This is also another valuable oily substance pro- 
duced from coal-tar, entering largely into the manu- 
facture of candles. If the tar is distilled at a higher 
temperature a solid white substance is obtained, called 
naphthaline. 

WAat use is made of it ? 

It yields two coloring substances, one of which 
seems to be of the nature of madder, for when mixed 
with certain alkalies, a beautiful red color is the result. 

What can you say of the value of coal-tar ? 

That which at first was regarded as worthless 
proves to be almost invaluable. 

What other very useful article is obtained from coal 
mines ? 

Petroleum, or coal-oil. In opening a new section of 
a mine, on striking the rock a quantity of this fluid 
will gush out, as water from a well. Those places are 
therefore called oil wells. 

Where are they found f 

Generally in places near coal formations ; more 
abundantly in some localities than others. Asia seems 
to furnish it most plentifully. 

What is found in the Burman Empire ? 

In one neighborhood there are 520 wells in full ac- 
tivity, into which the petroleum flows from coal for- 
mations, producing more than 400,000 hogsheads an- 
nually. 



348 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

IV/iat use is made of it f 

It is 'burned in lamps instead of other oil, and when 
mixed with earth or ashes is used for fuel. 

Is coal-oil foimd in this country f 

Within the past twenty years several wells have 
been struck in Pennsylvania, proving a source of im- 
mense wealth to the owners, taking the place of both 
sperm and whale-oils, so that not half as much of the 
latter is now sold as formerly. 

What advantage in the use of it ? 

Coal-oil is found much cheaper, besides burning 
with a brighter, clearer light than whale-oil. The 
chief objection to its use is the danger of explosion 
when coming in contact with flame. Serious acci- 
dents have often occurred in this way. 



GAS. 349 



CHAPTER III. 

GAS. 

W/iaf is gas ? 

This term is applied to any elastic fluid which will 
neither becohie solid or liquid at ordinary tempera- 
tures. 

To what form of gas do we now refer f 

To that which is used for illuminating purposes. 

How is it obtained ? 

By distilling coal in a retort or closed vessel. 

Is it ever found in a natural state f 

Yes ; since the earliest ages, in various countries, 
it has issued from crevices in the earth, probably 
caused by the decay of different substances. 

How much can be obtained at these places ? 

The supply seems inexhaustible, as it has come from 
the same localities for centuries. 

Is it always in the coal region f 

No ; frequently it is below that formation. The 
most celebrated natural fountains of this kind are on 
the borders of the Caspian Sea. 



350 PRACTICLE SCIENCE. 

Is it found in the Ufiited States ? 

In the Western part of New York these fountains 
come from the slate and sandstone region, so pure and 
abundant as to be collected in gasometers, and carried 
through pipes for lighting the neighboring villages. 

Mention some places where natural gas is thus used? 

The town of Fredonia, N. Y., has been illuminated 
in this way for many years ; also the light-house at 
Portland, Lake Erie. 

What have the Chinese done 9 
' For a long time they have used jets of gas obtained 
from their salt wells, both for fuel and for lighting 
their streets and houses, by evaporating the brine. 

Is the light from natural gas as brilliant as that 
from the artificial f 

Its illuminating power is less, owing to the want of 
an equal amount of carbon. 

How long has the artificial gas been known ? 

Its discovery is due to Dr. Clayton, an Englishman. 
The account of his experiments appear in a letter 
dated May 12, 1688. 

How was it done ? 

Having distilled some coal in a retort, he accidentally 
noticed that the gas issuing forth was inflammable. 
He collected this in bladders, and amused his friends 
by lighting it, as it came from the holes pricked in the 
bags. 

Were these experiments made practically useful? 

Although many persons besides Dr. Clayton dis- 
tilled this gas from coal, the object for some time 



GAS. 351 

seemed only to exhibit something curious and wonder- 
ful. 

When was it first used for lighting houses ? 

In 1792 Mr. Murdoch, an Englishman, made ex- 
periments for this purpose, and five or six years later 
fitted up an apparatus for lighting a manufactory with 
which he was connected. 

What progress did he make in the business f 

In 1804-5 he prepared the largest machinery yet 
constructed, which furnished light for some mills at 
Manchester equal to nearly 3000 candles. In 18 14, 
the streets of London, near Westminster Bridge, were 
thus lighted for the first time. 

Of what other material was gas made f 

It was produced from refuse oily and fatty sub- 
stances, the gas being of a superior quality. 

Did the business prosper ? 

It was at length abandoned, as the cost of the raw 
material was found to be greater than coal. 

Has any such attempt been m.ade in the United 
States ? 

Within a few years it has been successfully carried 
on ; cheap rosin oil being used for the purpose. 

How is it made ? 

The rosin oil is dropped upon a heated rnetal sur- 
face, the gas at once appears, and can be conducted 
immediately into the gasometer without further puri- 
fication. Rosin itself has also been applied to the 
same purpose. 



352 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

Ft'om what other material has gas been obtained f 

For some time it has been made from wood, and 
used in Philadelphia. In Germany, this kind of gas 
was also employed for lighting towns. 

How is it prepared f 

The wood, being thoroughly dried, is placed in red- 
hot retorts. The gas is immediately given off and 
passes into the apparatus for purifying, then distrib- 
uted by pipes to the places required. 

What is obtained besides gas ? 

A quantity of useful tar ; besides this, the charcoal 
that remains in the retort, which is more valuable 
even than the coke obtained from coal. 

Is gas made from ajty thing else ? 

Water has been used for this purpose, and benzole 
more successfully ; also peat. 

What experiment was made at Rheims ? 

The soap water left after washing woollen stuffs 
has been found to contain much oily matter. By ad- 
ding sulphuric acid, the greasy part rises to the sur- 
face : this is collected and distilled, when the gas is 
given off very freely. 

In making gas from coal, ivhat variety is preferred? 

The cannel is considered the best for this purpose, 
as giving out a greater quantity and better quality of 
the article required. 

Where is it obtained ? 

It is exported from England to this country. Some 
of the mines in Virginia and the Western States also 
furnish it. 



GAS. 3S| 

W/iat is necessary informing the codlinto gas f 

The retorts, which are of clay or cast-iron, are 
heated to redness as quickly as possible, and kept at 
this temperature. 

Why is it necessary ? 

At a lower heat it is found that much tar and other 
substances are formed, of less value than the gas. The 
coal should also be as dry as possible, for if it contains 
much moisture, the steam given ofE will cool the re- 
tort. 

What length of time is required to form the gas ? 

This varies with the size of the retort and the kind 
of coal used. Generally from four to six hours are re- 
quired. In Scotland, however, the rich cannel coal 
found there will yield gas in three hours. 

What is the amount obtained f 

This also depends upon the quality of coal. The 
average yield is about looo cubic feet to a ton, or one- 
tenth of the material used. 

How is the value of the gas estimated? 

By comparing it with the light of a certain number 
of candles. 

Will you give an instance ? 

An ordinary burner will consume about five cubic 
feet of gas in an hour. The gas of the London works 
is equal to the light of from 12 to 18 candles : that of 
Liverpool is far superior, sometimes equal to 22 can- 
dles. In New York it seldom reaches 20 candles, the 
average being about 16. 



354 PRACTICAL SCIENCE, 

In manufacttirmg gas, what is the most necessary 
part of the work f 

The retorts require first attention. These are im- 
mense iron or clay cyHnders, set in brick fire-places, 
and contain the coal to be formed into gas. 

How many are used at once ? 

The number varies from three to thirteen in each 
furnace. They are usually set in horizontal rows, with 
a fire under each of the lower retorts, so that the flame 
can pass among them all before reaching the flue 

In large establishments, what are seen ? 

The furnaces extending through the length of a 
large building, with many hundred retorts, all in oper- 
ation through the winter, but only a part in summer. 

Wheti the retorts aj'e filled with coal, what is then 
done ? 

Before lighting the fire, they are made air-tight b) 
means of a door at the outer end, which is closel} 
cemented. 

As the gas forms, what becomes of it f 

It passes through iron pipes into a large tube, callet 
the " Hydraulic Main," half filled with water, whicl 
takes the impurities from the gas. 
What is then done ? 

Any impurities that still remain are removed b) 
the "lime purifier," a mixture of lime and water, o 
lime alone, through which the gas passes ; the latte 
is generally preferred. 

How is it known to be of good quality ? 

During the process it is frequently tested by hold 



GAS. 355 

ing a piece of paper, wet with a solution of sugar of 
lead, to a jet of the gas. If it is discolored at all the 
gas is impure. 

After purifying the gas, what is then done ? 

It is conducted to the " station meter," an instru 
ment that measures and registers the quantity pro- 
duced, on the same principle as the meters used by 
the consumers at each house, although, of course, on a 
much larger scale. 
Will yoti describe it f 

A circular box, more than half full of water, contains 
a drum, supported on a rod passing from end to end 
of the outer case. This drum is divided into four 
equal parts, opening into the space around the axis. 
By means of slits in the rim, it also communicates 
with the outer part. 

How does the drum work f 

The gas being admitted into the central space, flows 
into one of the divisions of the drum which is partly 
under water. As this gradually fills, the pressure of 
the gas causes the drum to revolve, bringing the next 
division into a position to be filled, and so on. 

As each chamber is filled, what becomes of the gas f 

By turning the drum, it is emptied into the space 
above the water next to the outer case, being con- 
veyed from there to the gas-holder. 

How is the quantity of gas indicated f 

The amount that each chamber will hold is already 
known ; the number of revolutions made by the drum 
is recorded by wheel-work connected with dials on the 



356 PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 

outside of the box, by which the whole quantity of gas 
passed through is readily seen. 
W/iat is the next apparatus f 

It is the gasometer or gas-holder. This is made of 
sheet-iron, painted, being open at the bottom, and set 
in a tank df water. 

Explain its action. 

On admitting the gas below, the cylinder is raised 
up. When any is required, a stop-cock being turned, 
the pressure of the gasometer forces the gas through 
pipes laid for its passage. 

What is the size of the gasometer ? 

It varies in proportion to the amount of gas re- 
quired. One in Philadelphia will hold more than 
1,000,000 cubic feet of gas at a time, being 70 feet 
high and 140 in diameter. That in London is one- 
third larger. 

How long has gas been used in this country ? 

The first attempts to introduce it were made at Bal- 
timore, more than 50 years ago, but without much suc- 
cess. In 1822 it was introduced into Boston. The 
next year a gas company was formed in New York, but 
was not in successful operation until four years later. 
What progress has since been made? 

The use of gas continued to spread with great 
rapidity, until all our principal towns and cities are 
now lighted with it. 

In recalling zvhat has been learned from this book^ 
state the conclusions we may draw ? 

We find the greatest improvements and most won- 



GAS. 357 

derful inventions are the result of American skill, in- 
dustry and genius, and that these very discoveries 
in science and art will only prepare the way for still 
greater progress in the future. 

W/iai are the principal inventions of Americans now 
in use throughout the world? 

I. The cotton gin, without which the machine-spin- 
ner and the power loom would be useless. 2. The 
plaining machine. 3. The grass mower and grain 
reaper. 4. The rotary printing press. 5. Navigation 
by steam. 6. The hot air, or caloric engine. 7. The 
sewing machine. 

Can you mention any moref 

8. The manufacture of India-rubber and gutta- 
percha goods. 9. The sand blast, for carving. 
10. The grain elevator. 11. The electro-magnet and 
its practical application. 12. The most successful 
composing machine for printers. Other inventions 
might also be mentioned. 



THE END.. 



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